G V 

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Book O y) 
Copyright , 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSrn 



Gymnastic Kinesiology 



A MANUAŁ OF THE MECHANISM OF 
GYMNASTIC MOYEMENTS 

V 

11 



by 

WILLIAM SKARSTROM, M. D. 

Teachers College, Columbia University 
New York 



The Publication Department, 
The F. a. Bassette Co., 
Sprinofield, Mass. 
1909. 



\ 



Copyright, 1909, 

BY 

William Skarstrom. 



248482 



PREFACE. 



The subject matter in the following pages appeared, substan- 
tially in its present form, in the Physical Education Re- 
viEVV during 1908 «and 1909. This series of articles was planned 
with a view to present, in a non-technical manner, the appHcation 
to gymnastics of generahy known anatomical facts in conjunction 
with a few elementary mechanical principles more or less fa- 
mihar to everyone ; and also to correlate such appHcation with 
certain fundamental conceptions regarding the effect of dif- 
ferent uses of the motor organs on their structure as well as on 
their fimctional power and control. The larger part of the 
subject matter, therefore, is devoted tO' the analysis of represen- 
tative types of exercises for the purpose of ascertaining their 
mechanism and determining, as far as possible, their immediate 
and permanent effects or tendencies. The aim was to estabhsh in 
this way a basis for estimating the value or effectiveness of dif- 
ferent styles of gymnastic work as regards posturę and motor 
education, and in generał to influence gymnastic teaching in the 
direction of greater definiteness of purpose, choice of materiał 
and procedurę. 

In discussing the mechanism of movements miiformity of 
conception and execution is assumed. But definitions are some- 
times inadeąuate to insure this in all details, and therefore the 
mechanism as stated may be at variance with the results of 
another's observation. In the analysis of the exercises and in at- 
tempting to establish certain principles or criteria for their selec- 
tion and definition, it is not always possible (at present) to prove 
the points made by scientific demonstration. In many cases, 
however, this is hardly necessary, careful visual or tactile obser- 
vation being sufhcient to establish the main features. Where this 
fails or is unreliable, recourse must be had solely to reasoning 
from a few known facts or from analogy, and the truth or error 
of such reasoning must be tested by experience. In such cases, 
the conclusions are necessarily tentative. While personal ex- 
perience or observation make me feel fairly confident regarding 
some conclusions or claims made without adducing sufficient 
proof, I recognize that there is room for difference of opinion and 
wish to disclaim any assumption of finality of judgment, even if 
the text at times seems to imply this. My inclination would have 
led me to wait until more facts could have been established be- 
fore attempting to write upon this subject! But the scarcity of 
the literaturę dealing with it, especially in English, and the lack 
(at the time these articles were begun) of any work of this kind 



iv. 



PREFA CE 



having a direct bearing on gymnastics, encouraged the hope that 
cven a tentative, elementary treatment might be of some use to 
teacliers and students of physical education. 

I take pleasure in acknowledging the kind help given me by 
Dr. G. L. Meylan in preparing the photographs used for the il- 
kistrations and by Mr. A. 1. Prettyman in the preparation of some 
of the Hne drawings. To Dr. C. J. Enebuske and the Boston 
Normal School of Gymnastics I shall always be indebted for 
having my interest in the subject aroused, for receiving my first 
instruction in it as well as inspiration to further study and obser- 
vation. This interest has been kept aHve and stimulated by 
profitable discussions with Drs. L. Colhn, Theodore Hough, J. H. 
McCurdy, G. L. Meylan, L. H. Gulick and others. Finally, to the 
faithful efforts and intelligent ąuestionings of normal students 
at Chautauąua and Columbia Summer Schools and at Teacliers 
College, I owe the clearing up of many puzzling problems in 
Gymnastic Kinesiology. 

Columbia University. 



June 1, 1909. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PREFACE. 
INTRODUCTION. 

The Distinctiye Features of Gymnastics as Compared with Dancing, 
Games and Athletics. 

UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION. 
Importance of Trunk Moyements. 
Anatomical Reyiew. 

General Principles — Gravzty, Inertża, Oblżguity of Muscular Puli, 
l7iternal Resistance, Leverage, Functional Classification of 
Micscles. 
• Gymnastic Moyements. 

a. Free-sła7idmg Archmg, Back, Afm ałid Shottlder Blade Move- 
ineiits. 

B. Sicspensioii Exercises. 

c. Exercises Involvmg Siipport on the Arms. 
D. Switnining, Rozuing, Paddlżng , Tln-owing. 

LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION, 

The Need and Value of Motor Training in This Region. 

Anatomical Reyiew. 

Gymnastic Moyements and Positions. 

a. Different Types of Standi/tg Positioji. 

B. Foot Placings and Knee Bendiłigs. 

c. Char ges and Back Exercises. 

D. Ab domina l Exercises. 

E. Lateral Trunk Exercises, Locomotion. 

SUMMARY. . / 

1. Definiteness of Gymnastic Exercises. 

2. Localization of Moveme7it. 

3. Localization of Muscular Cojitraction. 

4. Fixation. 

The Sicpporting Fujiction of Muscles. 
Literaturę. 



INDEX. 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Distinctiye Features of Gymnastics, as Compa:^ed with 
Dancing, Games and Athletics. 

The procedures used as means of physical education may be 
grouped under the following heads : games and athletics ; dancing 
and gymnastics. The first two are largely objective in their 
naturę, involving bodily action and control with reference to 
something outside the individual. Such bodily action is usually 
measured or judged according to results produced on some object, 
such as a bali, a hammer, the point of a foil, the body of an antag- 
onist ; or it may be measured in terms of time or space, either 
absolutely or as compared with some other individual. In any 
case, the attention of the performer is fixed, not on himself, but 
on something outside of himself. His immediate object is to 
execute movements reąuiring often skill and delicate adjustment, 
usually great intensity of effort, or else endurance ; and all this, not 
for the sake of the moyements themselyes — ^for their sesthetic, phys- 
iological or other effects — but for the sake of obtaining some ob- 
jective result. His satisf action consists, for example, in being able 
to propel himself farther or faster through space. than the next 
man; to elude a'pursuer; to place an object where his opponents 
cannot catch it, as in baseball, handball, etc, or where it will 
do the greatest amount of execution, as in bowling and boxing. 
He does not care, at least for the time being, whether such moye- 
ments are, per se, injurious or beneficial, graceful or otherwise, 
as long as they accomplish his purpose. Instances are not lacking 
where even life or death did not matter, although the issue was 
merely friendly rivalry. 

Dancing and gymnastics,, on the other hand, are largely sub- 
jective in character. Here the bodily action and control have 
reference to the individual himself, to the relation of the parts 
of his body to each other, and to the immediate or remote 
sesthetic, physiological or anatomical effects produced by the moye- 
ments. Hence the moyements and positions are made to conform 
to some arbitrary standard, not readily measured or expressed in 
terms of time and space, absolute or relatiye, but judged by the 



2 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



individual himself or the onlooker according to the closeness of 
conformity to this standard. The latter may be merely an 
abstract idea based on sesthetic conceptions, or it may be based 
on anatomical or physiological knowledge. It is the "form," 
"style," "grace" or whatever term we may use, that counts. 
The attention is always on the individual himself, or on some 
accessory which for the time being may be considered a part of 
himself, such as dress or drapery in dancing; clubs, wands and 
other paraphernalia in gymnastics. The indiyiduaFs satisfaction 
is not dependent on the accomplishment of some result external to 
himself, but on his ability to move the parts of his body, or his 
body as a whole, in a certain rhythm, through or to certain atti- 
tudes or positions, reąuiring always precision, often speed, oc- 
casionally endurance. Sometimes external objects may be in- 
volved, as in the case of fixed gymnastic apparatus, but the per- 
former's efforts are not directed toward these ; they simply serve 
as points of support or fulcra to influence his own movements, 
to increase their scope, difficulty, variety; enabling him to check, 
increase, or change the direction of his momentum, to distribute 
the work in varying proportions to different parts of his body, 
etc. 

It is not always easy to draw the line between the two groups, 
as many forms of actiyit}'' involve both of the principles men- 
tioned, or may be made to do so. For example, competitive 
jumping may be made to include certain details of form or 
style, such as position of the body while in the air, when landing, 
or leaving the ground. Similar details may be included in the 
rules of many games and sports. Again, gymnastics and dancing 
may be made competitive and so' in a sense become objective, but 
only secondarily. In any such combination of the two elements 
the primary distinction would always remain. 

The effects on the individual of these types of activity are in 
some respects similar, in other respects not. The differences are 
of kind, as well as of ąuality and degree. That this is the case, and 
of considerable importance, is becoming increasingly recognized, 
at least by the profession. In the minds of the laity there is still 
much confusion on this subject, and one kind is usually con- 
sidered equivalent to another. In such cases the similarities 
only are perceiyed, namely the immediate, obvious organie effects 
of muscular exercise. Where differences are recognized, they 
are often of an incidental kind, such as the opportunities, or lack 
of them, for getting f resh air ; the element of pleasure or pre- 
dilection, etc, or they may be merely popular notions regarding 
the hygienic, or developmental and "muscle building" power of 
each. 



INTRODUCTION 



3 



The generał organie effects of muscular exercise are of course 
common to all kinds of bodily activity, varying in intensity and 
amount according to the kind, vigor, duration, continuity and 
distribution of the work. The same is true, in a generał way 
and with the same ąuahfications, as regards muscular develop- 
ment. In gymnastics, however, we can more readily select the 
kind, gauge the duration and intensity, and contro! the localiza- 
tion and distribution of the work; and therefore more effectively 
determine the character and direction of the development. Here 
Hes, in fact, one of the main differences between the two types. 
In games and athletics the work is instinctively (and purposely 
sometimes) done in the easiest way, by many muscular groups, 
and those the strongest, regardless of postural effects, if only 
the mechanical conditions can be made more favorable for im- 
mediate purposes, Left to the indiyiduaFs own (or the coach's) 
selection, as is usually the case, such forms of activity are chosen 
•as are best adapted to his own peculiarities of physiąue and 
which therefore promise greatest likelihood of success. Motor 
and postural habits already acąuired thus tend to become more 
fixed, and the chances for an even, all-around development are 
diminished. In gymnastics (of the right kind) the conditions 
are reversed. The efforts are here directed toward eąualization 
of development^^ and the formation of good habits of movement 
and carriage. This is accomplished by well-defined, localized 
movements, in which the weaker muscles are brought into power- 
ful, ąuick, or sustained action, and a forced erect position is main- 
tained throughout. 

Another respect in which the effects of the two types of work 
differ is in the kind of bodily control cultivated by each. In games 
and athletics the individual is' constantly called upon to meet a 
variety of situations reąuiring ąuick perception and judgment, and 
demanding muscular efforts of varying intensity and adjustment 
according to the needs of the moment. The ability to judge 
ąuickly and accurately the distance, speed and direction of moving 
objects and to ad j ust the muscular efforts relative to these is often 
a marked feature. The motor control resulting from this kind of 
work is one which enables the individual to meet special classes 
of situations: special skill, sometimes very limited in scope, as in 
a standing broad jump, or in the shot put; sometimes very varied, 
as in basket bali or boxing. The more numerous and different 
the games or sports in which the individuai engages, the greater 
becomes his fund of reflex or automatic coórdinations, his power 

*This term is not intended to apply to minor details of measurement of the two 
sides of the body, but is used in a more generał sense applying to all parts. 

/ 



4 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



of adaptation, in a word his physical efificiency. Let us for the 
present cali this kind of control objective. Its value is obvious 
and would alone justify the giving of athletics and games a 
prominent place in any comprehensive scheme of physical edu- 
cation. The morał and social training is of course of even greater 
■importance, but that does not come within the scope and purpose 
of this discussion. 

The bodily control cultivated by dancing and gymnastics is, 
like the work, of a subjective kind. It does not directly make 
the individual more efficient as regards influencing external ob~ 
jects, but it does mean ability to manage himself. It means, 
amonj3^ other things, a better sense of eąuilibrium, increased power 
of adjustment to situations in which change of base or support 
are freąuent and marked features. It includes, usually, ability 
to judge and manage his own momentum to best advantage. The 
posturę sense, too, is cultivated, and on this depends, to 'a great 
extent, ability to assume and maintain a good carriage. Of 
course the proper structural relations and muscular tone are also 
essential factors in this, but as already suggested, and as will be^ 
shown more clearly later, gymnastics are more effective in pro- 
ducing this than is any other kind of work. The ability to make 
precise, speedy and powerful localized movements, which forms 
the basis of so many kinds of specialized skill, and which is an 
important element in all effective and economical action, is de- 
manded and acąuired by well-defined, clean-cut, gymnastic exer- 
cises. In dancing, some of these elements are present to a greater 
or less extent. Besides, there is reąuired a nicety in the adjust- 
ment of effort, in the shifting and redistribution of the body 
weight, in the smooth seąuence and blending of movements of 
rhythmical alternation and recurrence, which is bound to increase 
the power of coórdination, to train the sense of rhythm, to elimi- 
nate stiffness, jerkiness and awkwardness of movement, and the 
self-consciousness that is both a cause and an effect, thereby 
enabling the individual to manage himself to better advantage in 
the ordinary movements of daily life. This kind of control might 
\ be called subjective. It is often expressed in such terms as 
1 grace, bearing, presence, etc, and is probably of more importance 
■ in the soćial relations of life (and perhaps in business too) than 
i we are apt to think. Much of it is of course acąuired uncon- 
sciously under favorable home and social conditions in early 
life, but it is safe to say that the need of training in this respect 
still remains pretty generał, and that it is one of the legitimate 
functions of physical education to meet this need. A cultivation 
of subjective control is of advantage, also, as a preliminary to, 
and a basis for the objective training obtained by a practice of 



INTRODUCTION 



5 



games and athletics. The two should go hand in hand, each sup- 
plementing and balancing the other. Perhaps there is no funda- 
mental difference between objective and subjective control, the 
former being simply the abihty to apply the latter in various 
directions. Here, as everywhere, it is difficult to draw hard and 
fast hnes. But those who have had occasion to observe and 
inąuire into the physical characteristics of great numbers of 
youths and adults cannot have failed to notice the freąuent 
occurrence of cases in which the one or the other type of control 
seemed to predominate, and the corresponding difference in the 
kinds of activity which represented the physical training of the 
individuals. 

If it be true, in a generał way, that games and athletics are 
conducive to objective efficiency, gymnastics and dancing to sub- 
jective harmony — and I think the experience of teachers of 
physical c -acation will bear it out — it next becomes of interest 
to inąuire into the ef¥ectiveness of particular types of each, the 
principles underlying selection, methods of procedurę, manage- 
nient and teaching which would produce the most rapid and 
permanent results. The magnitude of such an inąuiry necessi- 
tates diyision of the subject and even limitation to certain topics 
within erch diyision. Our study will, therefore, be confined 
largely to gymnastics, and even in this limited field only certain 
phases will be discussed in detail, chiefly those of a technical 
character. relating to the definition and mechanism of movements 
and positions, and to their correct execution. 

Gymnastics, it is generally conceded, constitute one of the most 
efifectiye means of correcting minor defects of deyelopment and 
faulty structural relations resulting from the unfayorable in- 
fluences of modern conditions of life. When applied to grow- 
ing indiyiduals, this statement might be put in positiye form 
by saying that gymnastics most effectiyely conduce to. normal 
growth and deyelopment. They counteract the pernicious effects 
of sedentary, school-desk life, they offset and supplement the 
uneąual and partial actiyity of daily life as well as of games and 
athletics. Ęut„the great yalue of gymnastics, especially when 
supplemented by dancing, in the cultiyation of subjectiye control 
is not so generally appreciated. Nor are the differences between / 
these two kinds of subjectiye actiyity always clearly understood. 

Gymnastics and dancing are closely related, fundamentally, and 
are often combined in yarying proportions while being called one 
or the other. In dancing the moyements are always continuous 
and rhythmical, they are less localized, less sharply defined than 
gymnastic moyements ; they inyolye blended but partial action 
of a great number of joints and muscles rather than complete, 



6 GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY . 

powerful action of a few. In gymnastics the movements are 
usually not continuous, but consist of a series of changeś of 
position, each position being clearly defined and held a varying 
I length of time. While gymnastics may be rhythmical it is 
' , not of advantage to have the rhythm even and uniform. This 
tends irresistibly to make the movements lose in vigor and com- 
pleteness, and therefore in their own distinctive effectivenęss. 
* In gymnastics, as in everything else, it is better to aim at powerful 
and rapid effects in a few directions, rather than partial, mediocre 
results in many. Gymnastics are specialized, artificial forms of 
activity, capable of being taught by logical and intensive methods, 
and of producing satisfactory isfsults in the way of harmonious 
development, improved posturę and increased speed, accuracy 
and power of motor adjustment. But this cannot be rea- 
sonably expected if the exercises constituting the gymnastic les- 
son do not cali for this kind o^f action, or if they do so nominally, 
are arranged, combined and taught in such a way as to defeat 
their own objects, or at least reduce their effectiveness to a 
minimum. For example, if slow and partial, or very complex 
movements of one part of the body, say the trunk, are combined 
with what is intended to be ąuick, yigorous and complete move- 
ments of another part, say the arms and shoulders, the 
latter will inevitably assume the character of the former, and 
so amount to very little from any point of view. The 
greater the complexity of the movements, relative to the 
ability of the individual or class, the smaller are the chances 
for ef¥ective execution. This will also be the case if all kinds of 
movements are made tO' conform to a uniform, even rhythm, and 
especially if accompanied by soothing, dreamy musie, or worse yet, 
by a featureless, mechanical ham.mering on a piano. The work 
then really becomes dancing, but dancing of an inferior grade, 
such as would be scorned and repudiated by any good teacher of 
dancing. As gymnastics it has chiefly the value of gentle exercise. 
When this is the main object sought, such work may be 
defended, and there are doubtless conditions — aside from classes 
of smali children, where it may be perfectly legitimate — under 
which no other kind of work would be feasible. This might, for 
example, be the case with classes of working women, at least to 
begin with. But such conditions are probably not as numerous, 
or at least as permanent, as is often supposed. This style of 
work is, however, apt to please the pupils, at least for a time; 
and it makes teaching comfortable and easy. It may be compared 
to methods of tćaching children language symbols and elementary 
numbers by incorporating them in games, songs and rhymes ; or to 
some conceivable method of teaching grammar and arithmetic 



INTRODUCTION 7 

through forms expressed in terms of poetry and musie. Gym- 
nastics of this type lose most of their distinctive features. The 
movements are done in the easiest manner, are incomplete and 
vague, usually listless or else oscillatory, i.e. the terminal and inter- 
mediate positions are not sufficiently marked. Opportunities for ^ 
correction by the teacher are thus lost, and the pupils are en- I 
couraged to form habits of looseness of conception as well as of I 
cxecution. Most teachers have had the experience of being told / 
b}^ a prospective pupil that he or she has had gym.nastic training | 
so and so long, and is quite familiar with the work, while even the I 
most casuał observation of the pupiFs motor or postural habits, 
and the ąuality of his subseąuent work seem utterly to contradict 
this, or to suggest that the work previously done had been of a 
character which failed to produce those efifects which gymnastics 
stand for. Analogies to this in other fields are only too' numerous, 
the most common, perhaps, being language. Again, many people 
lose faith in the effectiveness of gymnastics, because they have 
found for themselves that years of honest but misdirected efiforts 
have failed to do for them what they had been led to expect. This 
may of course be explained partly by the tendency of some 
teachers to make excessive claims for something about which they 
have more faith and enthusiasm than detailed knowledge, partly 
by popular misconceptions about the whole subject. The latter 
was well illustrated recently by the reply of the sporting editor 
of a newspaper to a ąuery sent in by a young man regarding the 
best way to cure round shoulders. '']om a gym, work hard at 
dumbbells, chest weights, rowing machines, boxing and handball." 

While it is perfectly legitimate and desirable, whenever feasible, 
to give in each gymnastic lesson some work in the naturę of 
dancing, games or athletics to supplement the gymnastics, it is 
well to make each distinct from the other, not only by name and 
place in the lesson, but also by the character of the work itself, 
and by the method of teaching it. ' Let the gymnastic exercises 
stand out in contrast to the others by being "olean-cut," definite 
iri type, simple and localized rather than complex and generał, or 
if relatively complex, capable of analysis, of being resolved into 
simple component parts, each of which is marked or punctuated 
so to speak, by a sharply defined position. And insist, by all the 
resources of the art of teaching, on accurate execution of the 
movements and on at least a momentary maintenance of the in- 
termediate and terminal positions. Define the exercises in a way 
to induce completeness of movement in a smali number of joints, 
and in directions which are neglected in the ordinary move- 
ments of daily life and even in most games and athletics, and in 
which, therefore, mobility tends to become diminished. This will 



8 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



of course mean complete and powerful contraction of the muscles 
on that side of the joints. These muscles, because seldom used 
in that way, are apt to be deficient in development or tone, or both. 
At the same time the opposite structures, muscular and fibrous, 
which offer resistance to completeness of movement, will be 
subjected to strong tension. Furthermore, the effort to localize 
the movement, i.e. to move as much as possible in one place and' as 
little as possible elsewhere, will bring into tonie or static action 
many other muscles in order to keep other parts from moving. 
When "other parts" include the trunk or shoulder blades (and that 
is very often the case), the muscles responsible for the proper 
posturę of these parts are given valuable training in endurance 
and control, a training particularly well adapted to their special 
function, that of support. This is of as much importance as 
their increase in size and strength, which determines their effici- 
ency as purely motor organs. 

A practice of well-defined, localized movements, is, in the long 
run, conducive to economical motor habits by increasing the indi- 
viduars power of localized muscular contraction. This implies a 
saving, not only in, the number of muscles needed to produce a 
given movement, but also of the number needed to prevent 
movement elsewhere. In other words, the inhibition oi move- 
ment becomes more and more a central, instead of a 2en£heral 
matter. In practice this should not occur to any considerable ex- 
tent, as it is desirable to have the total amount of muscular work 
as great as possible. It need not occur if the selection and pro- 
gression of the exercises is such as to make them always suffi- 
ciently difficult and severe, no matter how far advanced the pupils 
may be. 

By making the majority of the gymnastic exercises as speedy as 
is consistent with their naturę and mechanism, and by doing at 
least a part of the work to the word of command, habits of ąuick 
and accurate motor response to given situations are formed. 
These become multiplied and more firmly fixed by application in 
games and athletics, improving the ąuality of the latter, and so 
increasing the gain in objective as well as subjective control. 

In gymnastic apparatus work, especially in such exercises as 
jumping, vaulting, climbing, a kind of subjective control is culti- 
vated which is usually expressed by the term agility. This im- 
plies ability to manage the bodily momentum, when on the feet, 
when suspended on or supported by the arms ; or a combination 
of these. This is a large element in physical efficiency. Gym- 
nastics of this kind are very closely related to athletics, the dif- 
ference being, as already pointed out, that in corresponding types 
of athletic competition "the form" (position of body, etc.) 



INTRODUCTION 



9 



is of no special significance, except as it facilitates the performance 
of a particular feat, whereas in gymnastics it is the principal 
thing and should never be lost sight of. In gymnastic work of 
this kind the variety may be made much greater and the pro- 
gression finer than in athletics. This leads to greater versatiHty 
and rangę of control. 

The effectiveness of gymnastics in the directions indicated will 
then depend on the style of exercises taught, and this in turn on 
the teacher's conception of the objects of the work, his ideals and 
standards, and his ability to present it in such a way as to elicit the 
greatest amount of cooperation from his pupils. As a basis for 
all this an understanding of the physiological effects and the 
anatomical mechanism of the exercises is essential. The former 
will guide him in determining the amount, duration and intensity 
of the work, the latter in the selection, definition, arrangement 
and progression of the exercises, Both are needed for an intel- 
ligent appreciation of the needs of the individual or class, for a 
judicious choice of the means, and for a proper estimate of what 
may be accomplished. 

The following chapters will be devoted to a study of the 
anatomical mechanism of the most common and representative 
types of gymnastic movements and positions. 



A. UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION. 



Iinportance of trunk inoveinents. In the introductory part an 
effort was made to point out the place of gymnastics in a compre- 
hensive scheme of physical training, and particularly the effective- 
ness of systematic, well defined, accurately executed gymnastic 
movements in eąualizing growth and development, and in cultivat- 
ing that kind of subjective control on which erect carriage, 
agiHty and efficient, economical motor habits depend. 01_such 
gymnastic exercises, the most important are those involving the 
trunk, shoulder and hip regions. The relations of the bony and 
fibrous structures of these parts ; the strength, tone, endurance and 
control of their muscles obtained through the proper and regular 
exercise of those muscles, determine largely the results we may 
expect in the directions indicated. Biologists and psychologists 
are pretty well agreed on the fundamental character of such 
trunk movenients, and on the importance of their early cultiva- 
tion in relation to normal growth and development, not only of 
the osseous and muscular systems of the trunk, but also of the 
great vital organs contained in it. Besides, as Tyler has so 
clearly pointed out, the proper development of the fundamental 
brain centers, and indirectly of the whole central nervous system, 
is intimately connected with and dependent on abundant and 
varied activity, in early life, of the large muscles in these regions."^ 
During the later stages of the developmental period the continued 
cultivation of these central and fundamental neuro-muscular 
mechanisms may still be made to contribute to the more complex 
and finer motor control by which the individual is adapting him- 
self to his environment. This is done by gradually demanding 
more definiteness, finer "shades" of distinction, more accurate 
iocaii/.a^*on, greater variations of speed, etc, in the same trunk, 
shoulder and hip movements. In this way new paths of motor 
associations are opened up, new, or at least clearer, motor con- 
cepts are formed, finer motor ideals are established, and a more 
complete realization of latent possibilities of muscular coórdina- 
tion is attained, Finally, the purely physiological ef¥ects of trunk 
movements are of primary and eąual importance, in the main- 
tenance of health and organie vigor, from childhood to old age. 

In discussing the anatomical mechanism of the gymnastic 
movements no attempt will be made to analyze them with mathe- 
matical accuracy, or in terms of mechanics. The principal aim 
will be to show how, by apparently smali variations of definition 
and execution, the character of the movements may be consider- 
ably modified, and their ef¥ectiveness enhanced or diminished. 



'^]. M. Tyler, Groivth and Education. 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



U 



ANATOMY 1. JOINTS AND MOYEMENTS. 

To begin with, it will perhaps be helpful to review briefly some 
of the most important anatomical facts having a bearing on the 
kind and rangę of moyemecit in the joints of the regions to be 
considered, and the muscles producing or modifying these 
movements. 

The bony frame work of the trunk consists of : (1) the spinał 
column, forming its main support and sustaining the weight of 
the head, shoulders and thorax; (2) the thorax, a bony-carti- 
laginous cage, consisting of the ribs, articulating in front, by their 
cartilages, with the sternum, and behind, directly, with the thoracic 
spine; (3) the shoulder girdle, an incomplete bony ring formed 
by the clavicles and scapulse, articulating with each other by 
means of the acromio-clavicular joints; (4) the pelvis, another 
bony ring articulating with the lower end of the spine. 

The spine as a whole is fairly mobile by means of the inter- 
yertebral disks and the joints between the articular processes of 
the vertebr?e. The mobility in the different regions of the spine 
varies in rangę and kind. The chief factors which determine this 
are: (1) the thickness of the intervertebral disks, (2) the piane 
of the surfaces by which the articular processes meet, and (3) the 
tightness or laxness of the ligaments, especially of those connect- 
ing the articular processes. In the thoracic region the attach- 
ment of the ribs to the yertebrse is a very important factor in- 
fluencing mobility or rather limiting it. Generally speaking, mo- 
bility is greatest in the lumbar spine, smallest in the thoracic. 
As regards the different kinds of movement, flexion, extension and 
hyperextension are most free in the lumbar region. Here the 
existing physiological curve is one of hyperextension (including 
often the twelfth thoracic vertebra, and sometimes the eleventh). 
This hyperextension may be carried considerably further. The 
opposite movement, flexion, is correspondingly free, reaching and 
pasśing somewhat beyond the straight line, in the average young 
person at least. In the thoracic region the spine is normally in a 
State of flexion. This may be increased a moderate amount. The 
opposite movement of extension can only be carried to the straight 
line, and barely that in most persons. The rangę of flexion and 
extension is therefore not very great here, chiefly owing to the 
attachment of the relatively rigid thorax to this part of the spine ; 
also, the intervertebral disks are here thinner and the ligaments 
tighter than in the other regions, notably the lumbar. For these 
reasons the side-bendings also are here less free than in the 
lumbar region. Rotation, on the contrary, is much freer in the 
thoracic (amounting to about 30 degrees each way) than in the 



12 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



lumbar region, where the locking of the articular processes pre- 
vents all but a very slight amount of this kind of movement. The 
cervical spine is capable of all the movements enumeratęd, the 
freedom and rangę being intermediate between the other two. 
Rotation is, however, greater here than in the lumbar spine. 

The chest, although relatively rigid as compared with the whole 
spine, is yet capable of considerable variations in its diameters. 
This is accomplished by: (1) a rolling movement of the posterior 
portions of the ribs (directed outward, downward and a little back- 
ward) on an axis passing through the costo-central and costo- 
transverse joints; (2) by a twisting and straightening movement 
of the rib cartilages ; and (3) by a gliding motion in the chondro- 
sternal and inter-chondral joints. On account of their obUąuity 
and peculiar curves, the resulting movement of the ribs is one 
which for convenience of description it is customary to analyze 
into two parts : elevation, involving a raising of the anterior ends 
of the ribs and the sternum and a tilting of the latter (due to the 
comparative immobility of the first pair of ribs) ; and eversion, 
implying a ''spreading out" of the ribs laterally, a nioving out- 
ward, as well as upward of their convex lower borders. In this 
way both the antero-posterior and transverse diameters of the 
chest are increased. This movement of the ribs, while involving 
the complete rangę of motion in the costo-vertebral joints (and 
this is not very great on account of the number and shortness of 
the costo-vertebral ligaments) is considerably amplified by the 
supplementary movements of the thoracic yertebr^e in the direction 
of extension. In other words, whenever there is an effort at 
extreme chest expansion, the thoracic spine is straightene'd at the 
same time. Conversely, any movement of the thoracic spine in- 
fluences the position of the chest, as, aside from the short, tense 
ligaments, the intimate muscular connection between the verte- 
brje and the ribs, will cause the latter to follow any movement of 
the former, even before the limit of motion in the costo-vertebral 
joints has been reached. 

The movements of the shoulder girdle, involving the sterno- 
clavicular and acromio-claviculaf joints, may be most readily 
expressed in terms of movement of the scapula. Thus (1) eleva- 
tion and (2) depression of this bone imply moyement in both of 
the joints mentioned, of such a naturę as to keep the scapula from 
being displaced in other directions than directly upward and 
downward, and from changing its piane. Similarly the scapula 
may be moved away from and toward the mid-spinal line by com- 
plementary movements of the two joints. This is' (3) abduction 
and (4) adduction of the scapula. Finally the scapula may be 
made to swing around on an approxim.ate]y central axis, in such 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



13. 



manner that the glenoid cavity will face almost directly upward, 
and the vertebral scapula border will be almost horizontal, with 
the lower angle close to the posterior axillary line. This is called 
(5) rotation upward, and the return to the ordinary position (and 
a Httle beyond it) (6), rotation downward. While these move- 
ments of the scapula are described, for the sake of simplicity as 
"pure," that is, each occuring without any admixture of any other, 
this does not occur naturally. Usually two or more are asso- 
ciated. Only by very skillful muscular coórdination and con- 
siderable effort can pure movements be approximated. AU these 
scapular movements are supplementary to the movements in the 
shoulder joint, and by means of them the rangę of movements 
of the upper arm is nearly doubled. 

The shoulder joint proper — between the head of the humerus 
and the glenoid cavity of the scapula — allows about 90° to 110° of 
all kinds of motion : flexion and extension, a moving of the arm 
forward (upward) and return, and also a slight amount of hyper- 
extension, i. e. a moving of the arm backward; abduction and 
adduction, a moving of the arm directly outward (away from the 
side) and return, and also a sUght amount of hyper-adduction 
when combined with flexion; a combination or rather a succes- 
sion of these — circumduction ; and finally rotation inward and 
outward of the humerus on its length axis a varying amount 
(from 30° to 40° each way). These movements are checked and 
limited by the capsular ligament, the coraco-humeral ligament, by 
approximation of the tuberosities of the humerus to the arch 
formed by the acromion and coracoid processes of the scapula and 
the ligament connecting them ; and lastly — though first in point of 
time — by stretching of the muscles whose tendons surround the 
joint on all sides and act as accessory ligaments. 

II. MUSCLES. 

The yarious movements of the spine are produced (aside from 
the part played by gravity) by muscles, attached'by one or both 
ends to the spine, and also by muscles attached to the chest, 
shoulder girdle and pelvis. Thus active flexion of the whole 
spine would be brought about by the anterior neck muscles, the 
pectorals (the internal intercostals), the straight and obliąue 
abdominal muscles, and, under some circumstances, by the latis- 
simus dorsi. Active extension and hyper-extension would in gen- 
erał be produced by the erector spinse and its upper prolongations, 
all the deeper and some of the superficial back muscles, such as 
serratus posticus superior and inferior, levator anguli scapulae and 
trapezius. Active side bending, or straightening up from the posi- 



14 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



tion of side bending, would involve the front and back muscles of 
the corresponding side. Rotation or trunk twisting, would be pro- 
duced by consecutive relays of obliąue muscles on both sides of 
the spine and by the external obliąue abdominal muscles of one 
side working in conjunction with the internal obliąue of the other 
side. These will be discussed in more detail in connection with 
the analysis of gymnastic niovements. 

The muscles which move the chest are : ( 1 ) the muscles of 
ordinary inspiration — external intercostals (anterior portion of 
internal intercostals), levatores costarum, scaleni; (2) those of 
forced inspiration — sterno-mastoid and the anterior neck muscles 
attached by their lower ends to the sternum, the subclavius, lower 
(anterior) part of latissimus dorsi, lower serratus magnus, lower 
pectoralis major, pectoraHs minor, serratus posticus superior, 
accessorius ad ilio-costalemi, cervicalis ascendens, and indirectly 
most of the other back muscles ; (3) the muscles of forced expira- 
tion — the internal intercostals, the abdominal muscles, ąuadratus 
lumborum, serratus posticus infcrior, ilio-costalis, longissimus 
dorsi, infracostales and triangularis sterni. The diaphragm in its 
descent tends to draw the lower ribs somewhat* (upward and) 
inward. This is resisted by the ąuadratus lumborum and serratus 
posticus inferior, which may thus in certain forms of breathing, 
be considered as aids to forced inspiration. 

The muscles which move the scapula are as follows : 



(1) ElcTators: 

Upper trapezius, 
Levator anguli scapulas, 
Rhomboids. 



(4) Adductors : 
Trapezius, 
Rhomboids, 

Levator anguli scapulae 

and indirectly 
Latissimus dorsi. 



(2) Dcpressors : 

Lower trapezius, 
Lower serratus magnus, 
Pectoralis minor 
and indirectlj" 
Subclavius, 
Latissimus dorsi, 
Lower pectoralis major 

(5) Rotators upward: 
Whole trapezius, 
Whole serratus magnus. 



(3) Abductors : 

Serratus magnus, 
Pectoralis minor 
and indirectly 
Pectoralis major. 



(6) Rotators dow}izuard : 
Rhomboids, 

Levator anguli scapulae, 
Pectoralis minor 
and indirectly 
Latissimus dorsi, 
Lower pectoralis major. 



The following shoulder joint muscles move the humerus on the 
scapula, in any position of the latter bone : 



(1) Flexors: 

Pectoralis major, 
Anterior deltoid, 
(Short head of biceps, 
Coraco-brachialis) . 

(4) Adductors : 

Latissimus dorsi, 
Teres major, 
Pectoralis major, 
(Long head of triceps). 



(2) E.rtensors : 

Latissimus dorsi, 

Teres major, 

(Long head of triceps). 

{S) Rotators inward: 
Subscapularis, 
Pectoralis major, 
Latissimus dorsi, 
Teres major, 
(Anterior deltoid). 



(3) Abductors: 
Deltoid, 
Supraspinatus, 
Long head of biceps. 

(6) Rotators outward: 
Infraspinatus, 
Teres minor, 
(Posterior deltoid). 



16 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



It will be noticed that all the muscles which move the scapula 
and a majority of those which move the humerus on the scapula 
act in more than one capacity. Thus the trapezius as a whole 
is both an adductor and a rotator upward of the scapula, while 
its upper portion elevates and its lower portion depresses this 
bone. Similarly the serratus magnus as a whole abducts and 
rotates the scapula upward, while its lower portion also tends to 
depress it generally. The pectoralis minor abducts, depresses and 
helps to rotate it downward; the rhomboids and levator anguli 
scapulae adduct, elevate and rotate it downward. The reasons for 
this multiplicity of action are found in the extensive lines of 
origin of most of these muscles on the chest or spine and the 
relatively smali extent of surface of their insertion on the scapula ; 
in the obliąue direction of their fibres relative to the movements 
named; and finally (as regards rotation) in the position of their 
scapular insertions and the direction of their puli relative to the 
sterno-clavicular and acromio-clavicular joints. 

Among the muscles which produce movement in the shoulder 
joint we find a few capable of only one kind of action. Such are 
the supra- and infraspinatus, the subscapularis and perhaps the 
teres minor. The others act in two or more capacities, as for 
example the pectoralis major, which raises the arm from the 
fundamental position forward, upward and inward across the 
chest (a combination of flexion and hyper-adduction), while from 
any position of the arm above the horizontal it moves it down- 
ward and inward across the chest. In conjunction with the 
deltoid the pectoralis major is therefore a flexor of the shoulder 
joint while in conjunction with latissimus dorsi it is an adductor. 
At the same time it also helps in rotation inward. The reasons 
for the varied actions of the shoulder joint muscles are similar to 
those given regarding the scapular muscles. 

Another point to be noted is the indirect action of the pectoralis 
major and latissimus dorsi on the scapula. They are not attached 
to this bone, but nevertheless greatly influence its movements. 
When the limits of motion in the shoulder joint have been reached 
and the ligaments are stretched or the bony processes in contact, 
the two bones (humerus and scapula) are to all intents and pur- 
poses one, and the puli of the above named muscles is thereby 
exerted on the scapula. This happens even before the limits of 
motion in the shoulder joint have been reached, owing to the 
intimate muscular connection between the two bones. This is of 
considerable importance in the definition and execution of gym- 
nastic exercises, and will be referred to again. 

From the foregoing it will be seen that rarely, if ever, is any 
given movement of the scapula or arm produced by one muscle, 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 17 

or even by a single group. Each kind of movement is the result 
of the combined actioii of many muscles pulling in divergent lines, 
acting partly against, and so neutralizing each other, partly in 
the same direction. 

Resultant movement. The exact direction or piane of the 
<^ ' : Re movement will depend on the number and obliąuity of the 
Xg muscles involved, and the amount of puli (and leverage) 
exerted by each. It is in this way that so many ''shades'' 
of adjustment are possible. Before taking up the study of the 
anatomical mechanism of gymnastic movements it might bc well 
to consider briefly a few generał principles which have to be 
reckoned with in any attempt to analyze such movements. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

The principal factors — besides the force of muscular contrac- 
tion — concerned in the production and modification of movement 
"are gravity, inertia and momentum of the body or its parts, 
pressure in the joints (due to obliąue direction of muscular puli), 
the resistance of fibrous substances (ligaments and fascise) and 
of passive or contracting muscles, and leverage. 

(1) Gravity. The weight of the. body or its parts, or any 
weight attached to them, always acts vertically, unless we change 
its direction by mechanical appliances, machines, etc. It is 
usually antagonistic to the muscular force, though not always; 
e. g. in raising the arm sideways the abductors of the shoulder 
joint work against gravity ; when lowering the arm slowly gravity 
is the motiye force, while the abductors of the shoulder joint are 
still active in checking or controlling the speed of the movement. 
If a very quick lowering is desired, the opposite muscles, the 
adductors of the shoulder joint, will be called into play. Gravity 
of course continues to act, but this time in conjunction with the 
muscles. It may also be allowed to be the sole factor in the pro- 
duction of the movement. Ali that is necessary is to relax. com- 
pletely the abductor muscles and let the arms drop. 

(2) Inertia. Dif¥erences and changes of speed must also be 
taken into account in estimating the power developed during a 
movement. An increase of speed involves more powerful mus- 
cular contraction, but of the same kind as previously; a decrease 
of speed, a diminution of that kind of muscular action, or per- 
haps a contraction of the opposite muscles, if the change of speed 
is sudden and marked, amounting then to a checking, and involv- 
ing the overcoming of momentum. 

(3) Pressure in the joints, due to obliąue muscular puli. 

The direction of the puli of many muscles is at a very acute 
angle to the (length) axis of the bone on which they puli, at least 



18 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



-during one stage of the movement. Under such conditions a 
large part of the muscular force is used up in pressing the ends 
of the bones together, and for this reason that stage of the move- 
ment is harder than some other stage where the direction of the 
muscular puli is more perpendicular to the bone. Illustration : 
the puli of the latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major on the 
humerus, and of the biceps on the radius during the first part of 
the arm bending in the hanging position. (See also leverage.) 



1 crt,c£^ 




(4) Internal resistance. Motion in most joints is easiest 
within a limited rangę, representing only a portion (usually the 
central) of the total rangę of motion possible in the joint. Beyond 
this the agencies which limit motion, such as the stretching of 
muscles, fascise and ligaments, the contact of soft and bony parts, 
begin successively and increasingly to exert resistance. For 
example, bending the fingers reąuires an increasing amount of 
effort as the movement proceeds, because of the resistance offered 
by the extensor tendons and by the contact of the soft parts on 
the palmar side. Similarly, straightening of the fingers becomes 
increasingly difficult as we approach the straight line. In the 
movements of the shoulder joint and scapula, of the chest, spine 
and hip, the internal resistance plays an important role. It is 
one of the chief elements of difficulty in the correct execution of 
movements, and in the maintenance of good posturę. In order 
to secure completeness of movement against this resistance, 
maximal muscular contractions of great intensity are necessary. 

(5) Leverage. The amount of force necessary in the pro- 
duction of a movement or in maintaining a position depends 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



19 



among other things on the relative leverage of the active mus- 
cle(s) on one hand and of the weight on the other. Leverage, as 
applied in the body, may be defined as the perpendicular distance 
from the axis of motion (fulcrum, joint) to the line representing 
the appHcation and direction of the force. Thus in the figurę 
F P' is the leverage of the power and F W is the leverage of the 
weight. To balance, P X FP' must eąual W X FW. • 

Of the three classes of levers it is probable that only the first 
and third are represented in the body. Be that as it may, the 
usual arrangement is that resistance, i. e. the weight, reaction to 
gravity, etc, is apphed near the distal end of a segment (bone), 
the power, near t)ie proximal end, close to the fulcriim (joint). 
The leverage of the weight is therefore much greater than the 
leverage of the power. Or, stated more accurately, the power and 
the weight are to each other inversely as the distance from the 
point of appHcation and direction of each to the axis of motion. 
This means that a great deal more power must be exerted by the 
muscles than is represented by the amount of weight they have to 
move or sustain. Furthermore, the direction of appHcation of both 
forces relative to the bones on which they act, and conseąuently 
their leverage, changes as the movement progresses. This is an- 
other reason why one stage of the movement (the first in the 
figurę) is often the hardest. (See also obHąuity of muscular puH.) 




On the other hand the arc traversed by the distal end of the 
segment, where the weight is applied, is much greater than the 
arc traversed by that point on the segment where the power is 
applied, and as it takes the same time, the former has to travel 
at a much faster rate than the latter. Thus we find that while 
the levers of the body are,, in generał, unfavorable as regards 



20 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



power, they are favorable for speed, and momentum ; that while 
the muscles work at a mechanical disadvantage, as far as economy 
of power is concerned, rapidity of movement is greatly enhanced. 

(6) Categorical classification of muscles. Finally, in analyzing 
the muscular action occuring in gymnastic movements, it is neces- 
sary to know, not only the muscles which are directly concerned 
in the production of the movement — to be referred to as motor 
muscles — but also those which are brought into play to limit the 
extent and speed, and to determine the exact piane and direction 
of the movement. These are sometimes directly opposed to the 
movement, sometimes only partly so, pulling more or less obliąuely 
in directions opposite to that in which the movement is taking 
place. The first may be called antagonistic, the second steadying 
muscles in respect to a particular movement. Often the motor 
muscles themselves puli in obliąue directions, then acting also 
as steadying rńuscles. Besides these kinds of muscular action 
there is still another; viz. the induced action of muscles attached 
by one end to the segment from which the motor (antagonistic 
and steadying) muscles take their origin, and by the other end to 
' some distant point. This kind of action is especially marked in 
cases where the bone giving origin to the motor muscles is itself 
freely movable (as for example the scapula) and therefore 
reąuires fixation by muscular action of this secondary kind, in 
order to enable the motor muscles to exert the main part of their 
f orce' on the distal segments (the humerus in the example given). 
Muscles acting in this capacity may be called fixator muscles. 
In many trunk and shoulder blade movements of an exact, local- 
ized character there may be several relays of such fixators, the 
purpose of all the complex muscular action being to produce as 
much and as accurate movement as possible in one place, and as 
little as possible anywhere else. The importance of this in the 
training of coórdination and of the tone, strength and endurance 
of the muscles responsible for good posturę will be readily 
appreciated, 

Gymnastic ^Ioyements. 

a. free-standing arching, back^ arm and shoulder blade 

movements. 

In defining gymnastic movements the fundamental gymnastic 
position will be taken as a starting point. The changes in the 
position of the joints will then be stated, and the action and 
interplay of motor, antagonistic, steadying and fixator muscles 
described. The faulty tendencies peculiar to each movement will 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



21 



be discussed and analyzed, or at any rate the differences between 
the defined gymnastic movement and similar, slightly differently 
defined movements, gymnastic and otherwise, pointed out. 

1. The fundamental position of the 
upper part of the body is not an easy, 
relaxed, "natural" position. It should be 
considered a gymnastic exercise and, as 
such, should cali for a considerable 
amount of conscious muscular action (of 
the static kind). 

The head and neck. The Ime of gravi- 
tation from the head ordinarily lies in 
front of the thoracic spine, thus tending 
to make the head and neck fali forward. 
To prevent this the posterior neck and 
upper back muscles must be kept in a 
State of moderate contraction. With 
this goes also a slight contraction of the 
anterior neck muscles to keep the head 
from being merely tilted backward, which 
would be the first and chief effect of the 
contraction of the posterior neck mus- 
cles. By the combined and balanced figurę 3. fundamental 
action of the two sets of muscles gymnastic position 
the head is' poised in a piane coin- 

cident with that of the "sąuared" shoulders. This action will be 
more fully explained under ''Backward bending of head." 

The thoracic spine should be kept straight. This involves a 
considerable amount of contraction of the longitudinal back 
muscles — the upper prolongations of the erector spin^ — varying 
in intensity according to the degree of mobility of this part of 
the spine in the individual, and the extent to which it is curved 
in the habitual, relaxed position. 

The shoulders. Placed near the top of the anteriorty concave 
thoracic spine they naturally tend to fali forward of their own 
weight until checked by the passive tension of the posterior scapu- 
lar muscles (trapezii, rhomboids, lev. ang. scap.). The mere 
straightening of the thoracic spine will in some cases put the 
shoulders in a fairly good, "sąuare" position by shifting the 
weight line to a more posterior piane, and probably also by induc- 
ing a slight associated, unconscious action of the shoulder retract- 
ors. But in most cases, and especially in those whose habitual 
position is poor for one reason or another, this is not enough, at 
least for a fundamental gymnastic position. This should demand 
a fairly vigorous, conscious effort to depress and slightly retract 




22 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 




Figurę 4. Relaxed 
Standing Position 



the scapulse. (The combined action of 
the muscles concerned in this will be dis- 
cussed in connection with the shoulder 
and arm movements.) 

The chest. As a result both of the 
straightening of the upper spine and the 
contraction of the depressors of the 
scapulae (latissimus dorsi, lower serratus 
magnus and pectoralis minor), which 
are attached to the ribs, the chest is held 
in a state of moderate expansion in the 
fundamental gymnastic position. This 
need not involve the drawing in of air, or 
keeping an unusual amount of air in the 
chest, if the abdomen is at the same time 
retracted. 

Stimmary. The fundamental gymnas- 
tic position is active, ''unnatural," forced, 
in most cases. It involves fairly vigor- 
ous static contraction of all those 
muscles on whose tone and endurance 

good habitual posturę depends, namely, the upper erector spinse, 
the posterior and, to a less degree, the anterior neck muscles, 
the adductors and, rnore particularly,the depressors of the scapulae. 
The arms may be allowed to hang at the sides (not in front) 
comparatively relaxed, at least after the individual has learned to 
assume a correct position elsewhere. 

2. Backward bending of head. The 
muscular action is of the same kind as fhat 
given for the fundamental standing position, 
but it is of greater intensity, especially in the 
case, of thfe longitudinal back and posterior 
neck muscles. The majority of the latter 
are attached to the upper part of the cervical 
spine, and many to the occiput. Because of 
this, and also because the cervical spine is 
naturally hyperextended, i. e., convex an- 
teriorly, the effect of strong contraction of 
the posterior neck muscles is to tilt the head 
backward, that is, to increase the hyper- 
extension in the cervical spine and at the 
same time to hyperextend the head on the 
atlas. Such a movement is of very smali 
value, as the head may still be, and very figurę 5. backward 
often is. in front of the piane of the shoul- bending of head 




UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



23 



ders. To avoid this, and to obtain a good poise of the head, the 
flexors of the head and neck (rectus capitis anticus major 
and minor, longus colH, scaleni and the smali muscles running 
between the sternum, hyoid bone and lower jaw) mmst be 
strongly contracted. This is what occiirs when the effort 
is made to ''draw in the chin." The two sets of muscles thus 
working against each other, the posterior slightly in excess 
of the anterior, keep the head steady on the top of the cer- 
vical spine, produce a straightening of the latter, bind the two 
firmly together and make them move backward as one piece. In 
other words, the puli of. the posterior muscles, upper back as well 
as neck, is in Ihis way made to produce a backward movement of 
the whole neck, with the head, and is in reality an extension in 
the upper thoracic spine. It is valuable not only for the cultiva- 
tion of a good posturę of the head and for improving the mus- 
culature of the neck, but by inducing straightening of the upper 
thoracic spine it also leads to moderate expansion of the upper 
chest. This is made more pronounced by (1) the puli of the 
sterno-mastoids and the other anterior neck muscles attached by 
their lower ends to the sternum and two upper ribs ; (2) by the 
contraction of the shoulder blade depressors. These are brought 
into play in order to keep the shoulders from moving upward, a 
tendency which is very strong because some of the posterior neck 
muscles (trapezius and lev. ang. scap.) are also elevators of the 
shoulder blades. When they contract vigorously in the effort to 
move the head backward, they also tend to puli the scapula up 
towards the head, unless this action is neutralized and the 
scapula held fixed by the depressors of 
the latter, viz., the latissimus dorsi, 
lower serratus magnus, pectoralis 
minor. These again are attached by 
their lower ends to the sides and front 
of the chest, from the third to the 
twelfth ribs, and as their puli is more 
or less upward, they will contribute 
materially to, and make more generał, 
the chest expansion which results in the 
first place from the straightening of the 
(upper) thoracic spine. 

3. Backzvard hending of triink. 
The mechanism of this is practically 
the same as that of the preceding. The 
muscular contractions should be of the 
utmost intensity, however, thereby in- ^^^^^^ ^ backward 

surmg the most complete extension m bending of trunk 




24 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



the thoracic spine of which this region is capable. Efforts should 
be made to localize the movement high up and to minimize the 
participation of the lumbar spine. Very few persons are able to 
do this by hmiting the muscular contraction to the upper portion 
of the erector spin^, this group usually contracting as a whole. 
Its lower portion is more compact and powerful than the upper; 
it runs over that part of the spine which enjoys the greatest free- 
dom of motion, especially ,in a backward direction, and which is 
already in a state of hyperextension (concave backward) and 
therefore offers the muscle better leverage than the posteriorly 
convex thoracic region. Gravity, too, soon becomes a factor and 
acts with increasing leverage as the arching in the lower back be- 
comes more pronounced. In short, any strong effort to arch back- 
ward, even when directions regarding locaHzation high up are most 
expHcit, is apt to result in a marked hyperextension of the lumbar 
region, of ten without even including the fuli amount of straighten- 
ing possible in the thoracic spine, which is the main object of 
the exercise. The more untrained the individual, the more this 
is the case. In extreme instances of this inability to localize, 
even the knee joints participate in the movement. It is for this 
reason that it is always unsatisfactory and inadvisable to attempt 
a backward bending of trunk with classes or individuals until 
they have learned, by practicing backward bending of head, to 
make the muscular effort high up in the back, and also to 
neutralize the action of the lower erector spinse, gravity, etc, by 
strongly retracting the abdomen and by holding the pelvis in a 
more horizontal piane than in the ordinary position. In this 
way the lumbar hyperextension may be reduced to a minimum, 
indeed entirely prevented in 
many cases. This, however, is 
difficult to teach a person, and 
reąuires persistent and patient 
instruction and assistance. This 
subject will come up again in the 
chapter on the lower trunk and 
hip region. 

With the extreme contraction 
of the back extensors should be 
associated, by way of reinforce- 
ment, eąually powerful action of 
the posterior scapular muscles, 
i. e., the adductors and especially 
the depressors of the shoulder figurę 7. faulty backward 

blades. As has already been bending of trunk 




UPPER TRUXK AXD SHOULDER REGION 



25 



stated, the latter are at the same time elevators of the ribs, and as 
the scapulae cannot move very far downward, the effect of the 
puli of these muscles will be to raise the ten lower ribs. The 
subclavius (an indirect depressor of scapula) and the anterior neck 
muscles, which are both being stretched and trying to contract, do 
the same for the two upper ribs. The complete straightening of 
the thoracic spine is always accompanied by a considerable ex- 
pansion of the chest through the 
stretching of costo-vertebral liga- 
ments. Ali these factors taken 
together bring about an extieme 
excursion of the ribs upward and 
only to a slightly less extent 
laterally. 

4. Forzcard bcnding of tnink. 
This movement should take place 
chiefly in the hip joints, but 
should also include some flexion 
in the lumbar region, enough to 
obliterate the natural hyper- 
extension there and make the 
whole spine approach as nearly figurę s. forward bending of 
as possible a straight line with an truxk, also arm bending 

inclination of about forty-five de- 

grees. The most important muscular action occurs, how- 
ever, in the upper back. 

The movement is started by a slight contraction of the abdomi- 
nal. muscles and continued by gravity. Ali the back muscles as 
well as the posterior hip muscles are then brought into action ; the 
latter to control the speed of the movement in the hip joints, the 
former to keep the spine straight and rigid. As the inclination 
increases,the leverage of the weight becomes greater,and the mus- 
cles mentioned work at a correspondingly increasing mechanical 
disadvantage. Hence the strong tendency to allow the upper back 
to curve and the head and shoulders to droop. This tendency is 
the stronger the higher the arms are held, both because the center 
of gravity is thereby raised, with a corresponding increase of the 
weight leverage, and also because of the additional work de- 
manded of the posterior shoulder blade muscles. 

Another factor which adds to the difficulty of keeping the 
upper back straight in this movement is the inability, especially in 
untrained individuals, to keep the upper back muscles in a state 
of strong, unyielding static contraction, while the lower erector 
spinse and the posterior hip muscles are allowed to yield gradually, 
being kept in a state of less powerful static contraction. This is 




26 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



sometimes called eccentric contraction (Demeny). Ali these 
muscles, and especially the longitudinal back muscles, are closely 
associated and usually work together as a physiological whole. 
It is doubtful if a segment of these at one level can remain 
relaxed while one at another level is contracting vigorously. But 
by practice a person may learn to contract different portions with 
different degrees of intensity. This seems to be what happens in 
forward bending of trunk when done correctly as described. The 
same is probably true to some extent in the preceding move- 
ments, backward bending of head and trunk, and in the funda- 
mental gymnastic position. 

In returning tO' the erect position the same muscles are active, 
the lower erector spinjje and the hip extensors now becoming the 
motor force, contracting ''concentrically" (shortening), while 
gravity, acting' with a diminishing leverage as the movement 
proceeds, is the antagonistic force. 




Figurę 9. Forward-downward Bending of Trunk ^ 

5. Forzvard-dozvnzvard bending of trunk is like the pre- 
ceding in all respects, except that the lumbar flexión is carried as 
far as possible, by relaxing the lower back muscles. This' should 
be done without disturbing the position of the upper back by 
induced relaxation of the upper back and posterior shoulder 
blade muscles. 

Here, as in the preceding movement, the chest is kept in the 
fundamental position. This is here even more difficult than in 
forward bending, because of the stronger tendency to curve the 
upper back. The movement should not be allowed to proceed 
far enough, nor should the arms be held in a position high 
enoi^h, to induce this curving of the upper back with the 
associated depression of the chest. 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



27 



The two movements are of value in training the control, 
strength, tone and endurance of all the back muscles, by making 
them do their fuli duty in maintaining erect posturę under 
difficulties, which may be as great as one wishes. Moreover the 
conditions in the lower back as regards pressure and tension are 
reversed, thus serving, in a measure, to counteract the undesirable 
effects of excessive lumbar hyperextension often obtaining in the 
habitual standing position and in many gymnastic exercises. 

6. Arm hending. This movement is done in various ways : 
with elbows on a level with the shoulder; with hands placed on 
the chest; with hands in front of the shoulders and elbows either 
close to the waist, or behind the lateral piane of the body, or 
directly in front (the last is often seen when chest weights are 
used) ; with elbows approximately at right angles, close to the 
waist, and forearms directed horizontally forward; finally with 
elbows completely flexed, as close to the body as possible, and 
hands (clenched or not) as far back on the shoulders as pos- 
sible. The last variation will be analyzed, embodying as it does 
all the valuable features of the others and being the most vigorous 
and effective.of them all. (Fig. 8.) 

The joint mechanism is comparatively simple : complete flexion 
in the elbow joint, and complete rotation outward in the shoulder 
joint. The motor muscles are the forearm flexors (biceps, 
supinator longus, brachialis anticus) and the rotators outward of 
the upper arm (infraspinatus, teres minor and the posterior por- 
tion of the deltoid). It is the complete rotation outward in the 
shoulder joint that makes the movement effective and its analysis 
interesting. 

It is difficult for most persons to place the hands close to and 
on the outside of the shoulder and at the same time keep the 
elbows close to the waist. In other words, with the effort at 
complete flexion in the elbow and complete rotation outward in 
the shoulder joint there is associated an almost irresistible ten- 
dency to abduction in the shoulder jojnt and rotation upward of 
the scapula. The former is probably caused by the action of the 
biceps (as one of the forearm flexors), one of whose heads also 
abducts the shoulder joint, and by the induced action of the whole 
deltoid, whose posterior portion helps in producing the rotation 
outward in the shoulder joint. The rotation upward of scapula, 
which always to some extent accompanies abduction in the 
shoulder joint, is due principally to the puli of teres major. 
This, being a rotator inward of the shoulder joint, is of course 
stretched during rotation outward. It also contracts in the 
effort to keep the elbow close to the side of the body. Being 
attached by its lower end to or near the lower angle of the 



28 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



scapula, its effort to adduct the arm results partly in swinging 
the lower angle of the scapula outward, toward the humerus. 
In this position of the shoulder joint the teres minor has a similar 
though weaker action, when it contracts as a rotator outward. 

In the effort to keep the shoulder joint adducted, the latissimus 
dorsi is also brought into play. This pulls the arm backward, as 
well as downward and inward, and is thus largely responsible for 
another of the common '^faults" of the movement, viz., the 
passing of the elbow behind the piane of the back. At the same 
time this muscle, like the teres major, is a rotator inward and 
contributcs a large part of the resistance the outward rotators 
have to overcome. When to this is added the resistance offered 
by the other rotators inward, teres major, subscapularis and pec- 
toralis major, the difficulty of complete rotation outward is 
explained. 

To insure a complete and "pure" movement as defined at the 
outset, it is.then necessary to employ still other muscles. In the 
first place, the motor muscles — teres minor, infraspinatus and 
posterior deltoid — have to contract with utmost vigor to overcome 
the resistance of the iantagonistic and steadying muscles as 
described above. On account of the extreme effort which this 
demands, the trapezius and perhaps to a less extent the rhomboids 
contract "in sympathy," tending to move the scapula nearer the 
spine, in this way reinforcing the rotators outward of the shoulder 
joint. In this action the adductors of the scapula and the rotators 
outward of the shoulder joint may be considered as one physiolog- 
ical whole, with the scapula placed at its lower and outer portion, 
and attached at its outer end to the greater tuberosity of the 
humerus. Secondly, the strong effort needed to keep the elbow 
down close to the side, i. e. to keep the arm adducted, leads to 
the associated contra ction of all the shoulder blade depressors — 
the pectoralis minor, lower pectoralis major and lower serratus 
magnus, as well as the latissimus dorsi ( acting in the first place as 
an adductor of the arm) and the lower trapezius (already men- 
tioned as taking part in the effort at adduction of the scapula). 
The action of the pectoralis major neutralizes the tendency of 
the latissimus dorsi and teres major to puli the arm too far back- 
ward. 

Besides bringing about the "pure" and complete movement of 
arm bending according to the definition given, the result of the 
contraction of all these muscles in the way described is a very 
forcible expansion of the chest, both antero-posteriorly and lat- 
erally. Some of the reasons for this are the same as those already 
described under "Backward bending of trunk," viz., the puli of 
the shoulder blade depressors on the ten lower ribs. In addition 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



29 



the lower pectoralis major, while helping to hołd the arm down 
and keeping it from moving behind the lateral piane of the body, 
is at the same time stretched by the rotation outward in the 
shoulder joint. Being kept by other muscles from moving the 
arm forward and rotating inward it tends to move the points of 
its lower attachment (the cartilages of the fifth, sixth and seventh 
ribs) upward and outward. The direction of the fibres of this 
portion of the muscle is obliąue enough to enable it to act in 
this way, and so help to intensify the enlargement of this part of 
the chest. 

Another effect of doing the movement in the way described is 
a marked extension of the thoracic and lumbar regions of the 
spine. Some of this is caused by the forcible elevation and 
eversion of the ribs, but aside from this the strong efforts of the 
posterior shoulder muscles induce an almost involuntary con- 
traction of the extensors of the spine. This may, indeed, be the 
primary factor, especially if the attention and efiforts of the 
individual are directed to it. Such admonitions are often nec- 
essary to insure a good posturę of the head. In any case, the 
contraction of the longitudinal back muscles, as has already been 
shown, cannot be localized very definitely, and almost invariably 
produces the most marked effects in the lower back. This ex- 
cessive hyperextension, which may extend as high up as the tenth 
thoracic vertebra, and even higher in exceptional cases, is no 
doubt also contributed to by the latissimus dorsi, as the majority 
of its fibres arise from the lower thoracic and the whole lumbar 
spine, and pass obliąuely upward, outward and forward. Not 
being permitted to puli its upper attachment (on the humerus) 
backward because of the resistance of the pectoralis major, it 
tends to puli its lower attachment (lumbar spine) forward. 

This excessive "hoUowing" of the lower back is a very unde- 
sirable by-product of the movement. It is considered serious 
enough by many teachers to justify them in so defining it as to 
leave out the complete rotation outward or the complete adduction 
in the shoulder joint, or both. It then assumes the form of one 
or another of the variations enumerated in the beginning, some 
of which were designated as ''faulty" later in the discussion. 
This point of view is of course entirely reasouable. But on the 
other hand it is probably safe to say that with these two elements 
left out the movement loses most of its ef¥ectiveness, both as 
regards the amount and vigor of the muscular work done, and 
the kind of training — in tone, endurance and control — given to 
those muscles which are fesponsible for good posturę of the upper 
back, chest and shoulder. Furthermore, it is possible to do the 
movement with utmost vigor and completeness without inducing 



i 



30 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



much, or any, hyperextension in the lower back. While this is 
difficult and reąuires the additional action of the abdominal 
muscles and hip extensors, the necessary amount of coórdination 
is attainable by the average individual, if he is properly guided 
and stimulated by the teacher. When this neutraHzing muscular 
action iś mastered, the all-round value, as well as the complexity, 
of this useful and apparently simple movement is still further 
increased. This part of the mechanism of the movement has 
already been alluded to under ''Backward bending of trunk," and 
^ will be further explained in the chapter on the lower trunk and 
hip regions. 

7. Arm raising sideways. The arms are moved through or 
rather behind the lateral piane of the body to the horizontal po- 
sition, palms down. Anatomically that means abduction in the 
shoulder joint with some rotation upward of the scapula and 
efforts to adduct and depress this bone. 

The rotation upward of the scapula in this movement iftustrates 
something which has already been alluded to, namely, the tendency 
of the scapula to follow the arm. Normally the shoulder joint allows 
at least 100 degrees of abduction. Theoretically, therefore, there 
should be no need of the scapula taking part in this movement 
(arm raising sideways). The earlier investigators of the mech- 
anism of movements (the brothers Weber) assumed that any ex- 
tensive movement of the arm involved first the shoulder joint 
only, and then, when the limits of motion in that joint had been 
reached (ligaments being stretched, etc), the scapula, with the 
arm firmly fixed to' it, became the moving segment. That this is 
not the case can be readily demonstrated by any one, and has been 
definitely proved by Steinhausen. He has shown, by a series of 
radiographs, that the scapular element is actually most pronounced 
in the early stages of a movement of the arm away from the side 
and up overhead. In generał it may be said that all arm move- 
ments involve displacements of the scapula, and even when efforts 
are made to avoid it, this bone will begin to move long before 
the extreme limits of motion in the shoulder joint have been 
reached. This can be due only to two factors : ( 1 ) the intimate 
muscular connections between the humerus and scapula, the 
muscles acting as elastic ligaments of the shoulder joint; and (2) 
induced or associated contraction of scapular muscles whenever 
any set of shoulder joint muscles contract vigorously. Illustration 
of both was afforded in the analysis of the preceding movement 
"Arm bending." In "Arm raising sideways" we have an even 
, simpler case. 

The abduction in the shoulder joint is produced by the deltoid 
and supraspinatus, aided by the long head of the biceps. As soon 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



31 



as the arm begins to move, the muscles running from the lower 
angle of the scapula to the humerus — teres major, teres minor 
and the lower fibres of the subscapularis, especially the teres 
major — are made tense and so exert an outward puli on the lower 
angle of the scapula. On the other hand, the deltoid is so 
closely associated with the trapezius, functionally, that it is 
practically impossible to contract the former without inducing 
contraction of at least the upper portion of the latter. Here again 
it will be helpful to consider the two muscles one, physiologically, 
with the clavicle and upper part of the scapula set into its middle. 
In any upward movement of the arm the two work together. Ali 
parts of the trapezius puli the upper end of the scapula toward the 
spine more than the lower end. This, then, with the swinging 
outward of the lower angle by the passive puli of the teres major, 
etc, accounts for the rotation upward of the scapula. The lower 
and middle parts of the serratus magnus also contract, being ha- 
bitually associated with the trapezius in rotation upward of the 
scapula (MolHer). 

The upper trapezius, on account of its obliąue direction, is also 
a scapular elevator. This accounts, in part, for the common ten- 
dency to raise the shoulders, as well as the arms, in this move- 
ment, especially when no particular effort is made to prevent it. 

The piane of the movement is determined chiefly by the relative 
amount of resistance offered by the antagonistic muscles — pec- 
toralis major on the one hand, and latissimus dorsi and teres major 
on the other. Without explicit directions the average individual 
will move the arms in front of, rather than through or behind, 
the lateral piane of the body. This is the easiest way, and does not 
reąuire any special effort. The pectoral pulls in a more horizontal 
direction forward than the latissimus dorsi and teres major do 
in a backward direction. In other words, the pectoral has the ad- 
yantage in leverage and directness of puli over the others. Be- 
sides it is apt to have greater tone — less slack to be taken up, so 
to speak. 

So far, then, the mechanism of the movement represents only 
what occurs in an ordinary, non-gymnastic arm raising sideways, 
such as we do many times in the course of the day without thmk- 
ing about it. Such a movement would reąuire but little muscular 
work and still less muscular control. To make it amount to any- 
thing in these respects, that is, to make it a gymnastic exercise, 
it must be done according to the definition given at the outset. 
This implies additional muscular work, and work of an exact 
character. The tendency to let the arm move forward is over- 
come by active contraction of the latissimus dorsi and teres 
major. Associated with this and inseparable from it, is the effort 



32 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



to adduct the scapula by vigoroiis contraction of the whole trap- 
ezius, the rhomboids and the levator anguh scapulse. This, with 
the extreme contraction of the posterior deltoid, brings the arm 
back as far as possible. But the upper trapezius, rhomboids and 
levator anguh scapulse are ałl elevators, as well as adductors of the 
scapula, because of the obHąue direction of their fibers. Hence the 
raising of the shoulders,already mentioned as occurring even in the 
easy, ''non-gymnastic" form of the moyement, when the upper 
trapezius contracts "in sympathy" with the deltoid,tends tobecome 
more pronounced. Especiahy is this the case if the movement is 
done ąuickly. For this reason special effort has to be made to 
keep the shoulders down. This involves additional action of the 
latissimus dorsi and the lower trapezius (both already active in 
the effort to keep the arms back) as well as the pectoralis minor, 
lower pectoralis major, and lower serratus magnus (see next 
moyement for more detailed analysis of the interplay of elevators 
and depressors). 

The pectoralis minor and (lower) serratus magnus are ab- 
ductors as well as depressors of the scapula. When they are made 
to work against the adductors for the purpose of keeping the 
shoulders down, there results also a ''flattening" of the upper back, 
i.e., a closer apposition of the verebral borders of the scapulse to 
the back. The -latissimus dorsi, lower serratus magnus and pec- 
toralis minor are attached by their lower ends to the ten lower 
ribs. When the scapula and arm have been fixed, or moved as far 
as is desired, further action of these muscles will produce chest 
expansion. 

The total result, then, of the contraction of all these muscles 
in the way described is to move the arms to the horizontal po- 
sition, in a piane well behind the shoulders, without raising the 
latter, and besides, to bring about a ''flattening" of the upper back 
and a moderate chest expansion. This is accompanied, as usual, 
by a straightening of the upper back. To make the latter as 
pronounced as possible the head must be maintained in the funda- 
mental, erect posturę, and without special effort this is apt to be 
lost to some extent. 

In returning to the fundamental position the same muscles are 
still active, but the abductors of the shoulder joint and the rotators 
upward of the scapula are allowed to yield to gravity, which is 
the motor force if the movement is slow, or to the adductors of 
the shoulder joint and the rotators downward of the scapula if 
the moyement is ąuick. 

8. Forward hending of arms — differs from the preceding only 
in the additional complete flexion of the elbows. This brings the 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 33 



hands in front of and on a level with the shoulders. Here again, 
conscious effort has to be made to keep the elbows well back and 
the shoulders down. In other words, the action of the motor 
muscles — deltoid, supraspinatus (and biceps) — must be supple- 
mented by yigorous eon- 



traction of the adductors 
and depressors of the 
scapula in order to exe- 
cute the movement 
properly. 

The repeated mention 
of these two sets of 
muscles in the gymnas- 
tic exercises so far ana- 
lyzed has undoubtedly 
been noted by the 
reader. Their forcible 
action and orderly, con- 
trolled interplay with 
each other and with their 
antagonists, the ele- 
vators and abductors of 



■ m 




** 








- I 





the scapula, are, or fig. lo. forward bending of arms. 
should be, a constant 

and marked feature of all gymnastic exercises and especially in 
movements of the upper part of the body. In the exercises already 
described, and in those that are to follow, the definitions are such 
as always to make this element prominent by presenting varying 
degrees of difficulty and resistance to the properly coordinated 
action of these muscles. As has already several tinies been 
pointed out, by so doing, well-controlled and powerful action of 
the longitudinal back muscles is also induced. The ultimate object 
of defining movements in this way will be discussed in the finał 
chapter (on fixation, localization, muscular tone, etc). 

The movement ''Forward bending of arms" may, perhaps, 
better than any other serve to illustrate still further the combined 
and at the same time partially antagonistic action of the shoulder 
blade muscles. While it offers a fair degree of difficulty to cor- 
rect execution, it is less marked in this respect than some of the 
movements to be described, because of the absence of rotation in 
the shoulder joint. For the same reason its analysis is less com- 
plicated. 

The strong contraction of the scapular adductors — trapezius, 
levator anguli scapulse, rhomboids (direct) and latissimus dorsi 
(indirect) — associated with the effort to keep the elbows back, is 



34 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 




very apt to result also in a raisingi of the shoulders and a failure 
of the elbows to reacli their proper level. The reason for this is 
that all the direct adductors, with the exception of the lower por- 
tion of the trapezius, are also elevators of 
the scapula. On the whole, they are per- 
haps more favorably situated for the pro- 
duction of elevation than of adduction. 
Of the direct adductors the lower 
trapezius alone opposes this tendency to 
elevation. To reenforce it the latissimus 
dorsi, an indirect depressor, as well as 
adductor, of the scapula (through its puli 
on the humerus) is brought into ac- 
tion. But as its leverage on the humerus in this position of the 
shoulder joint is fairly good and its puli on this bone almost per- 
pendicular, a large part of its work is spent in opposition to the 
shoulder joint abductors — deltoid, supraspinatus and biceps. These 
are working at a mechanical disadvantage on account of their 
obliąue puli on the humerus, and they are, besides, vej:y nearly at 
the end of their contracting rangę (the biceps is probably not of 
much use here as a shoulder joint abductor, because its whole 
rangę of contraction is needed for the flexion of the elbow). As a 
conseąuence the latissimus dorsi is apt to get the better of the 
shoulder joint abductors and prevent them from raising the arm 
to the horizontal position. In other words, the latissimus fails to 
help the lower trapezius in its efifort to depress the scapula, and 
does something which is literally, as well as figuratively, "more 
in its line" ; it adducts the humerus, which is its direct function. 
It also pulls the arm backward as far as it will go (by a move- 
ment in the naturę of h3'perextension) in the shoulder joint, and 
after that of course adducts the scapula. 

To get the elbow up to the proper level and at the same time 
keep the shoulder from rising as a result of the excessive upward 
puli of the upper scapular adductors, one of two things must take 
place. Either the supraspinatus and deltoid — and especially the 
posterior portion of the latter — must contract with sufficient in- 
tensity to overcome the excessive puli of the latissimus, so that the 
elbow may be brought up to the level of and behind the shoulder 
and kept there, and the puli of the latissimus thereby be exerted 
on the scapula ; or additional scapular depressors must be called 
upon. Probably bóth of these means are used by the average 
indiyidual, at least in the beginning of gymnastic training, and 
this is in fact what is desired. 

The other scapular depressors are the pectoralis minor and 
lower serratus magnus (direct) and the lower pectoralis major 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



35 



(indirect).* The lower pectoralis major, like the latissimus, and 
for the same reason, partly resists the deltoid and supraspinatus 
and so tends to puli the arm, instead of the scapula, down; but 
unlike the latissimus and in opposition to it, it also pulls the arm 
forward, and through its puli on the arm, tends to abduct the 
scapula as well. Its success as a depressor of the scapula is then, 
as in the case of the latissimus, dependent on the ability of the 
deltoid and supraspinatus to raise the arm to, and hołd it in, a 
horizontal position. The pectoralis minor and lower serratus 
magnus must, therefore, finally be called into action to insure the 
fixation of the scapula as far as elevation is concerned. These, 
being also abductors, will by their contraction materially add to 
the resistance already exerted by' the pectoralis major against the 
scapular adductors. The latter, it will be remembered, are brought 
into action in the first place in order to reenforce the posterior 
deltoid in its effort to get the arm back. 

• To sum up, then, the complete and "pure" movement of "For- 
ward bending of arms" is accomplished only by the extreme con- 
traction of the shoulder joint abductors — deltoid (especially the 
posterior portion), supraspinatus and biceps. The piane of the 
movement behind the back is further insured by the active re- 
sistance of the latissimus dorsi, while the scapula is fixed by the 
contraction of its depressors and adductors against its elevators 
and abductors, the former set slightly in excess of the latter. There 
will be some rotation upward of the scapula, as the trapezius and 
serratus magnus are both active, and the teres major is at any 
rate in a state of tension, but this rotation upward will not be as 
great as would be the case if all the scapular muscles (including 
the rotators downward) were not vigorously contracted. 

The incidental, but really most important, result of the muscular 
action here, as in the exercises previously described, is a flattening 
and straightening of the upper back, with accompanying chest 
expansion. This, it will be remembered, is due to the attachment 
of the scapular depressors to the ribs, and is made more pro- 
nounced by the induced contraction of the erector spinas group. 

The proper muscular coordination in this movement seems to 
be more difficult, at least to a beginner, than in the preceding 
movement, "Arm raising sideways." The "faults" — elevation of 
the shoulders and drooping of the arms — are more common and 
persistent in the former than in the latter. The addition of such 
an apparently insignificant element as flexion of the elbows hardly 
seems enough to account for the difference, especially as at first 



*The subclavius is also a depressor, but being so smali and insignificant it will not be 
enumerated hereafter. It will be understood to be included whenerer the scapular de- 
pressors are mentioned. 



36 GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY . 

sight it might appear to make the movement easier by reducing 
the weight leverage. Still, the increase in complexity is real. To 
keep the wrists straight, and the hands, elbows and shoulders on 
the same level, and this as Iow as possible, probably reąuires more 
divided attention, and undoubtedly more coórdination, than keep- 
ing all the segments of the limb in Hne and on the same level. The 
smali amount of help given by the biceps in the abduction of the 
shoulder joint, because of its complete contraction to produce 
flexion in the elbow, may also be a factor. 

With a little practice the average individual soon learns to do 
"Forward bending of arms," correctly, in the main, with compara- 
tive ease. This saving in effort is probably due to acąuired ability 
to contract the deltoid, especially its posterior portion/ and the 
lower trapezius more powerfuUy, while the contraction of the 
upper trapezius, rhomboids and levator anguli scapul^ is to some 
extent inhibited. This makes vigorous action of the latissimus, 
serratus magnus and pectoralis less necessary. The contraction of 
the last named may indeed be almost entirely dispensed with in 
the case of a well-trained individual. In gymnastic practice, how- 
ever, it is well always to demand sufficient vigor in doing the 
exercise to cali forth a fair degree of action of the depressors and 
adductors of the scapula and the extensors of the spine. This 
may be accomplished in various ways, such as by direct stimula- 
tion of the class, or by combining the movement with a trunk or 
leg movement. 

9. Arm raising sideways with palms up. The first part of 
this movement has already been described (see "Arm raising 
sideways"). The additional element involves complete rotation 
outward in the shoulder joint and complete supination of the fore- 
arm. The action of motor, steadying and fixator muscles in com- 
plete rotation outward in the shoulder joint is similar.to that oc- 
curring in ''Arm bending" (see page 28). The rotation up- 
ward of the scapula, which is to some extent associated with each 
part of the movement when done separately, is more pronounced 
when they are combined. The same is true in a less degree of the 
eleyation of the scapula. Hence the efforts to resist these scapular 
displacements must be correspondingly vigorous. The net result 
is a more perfect flattening of the back and a greater lateral chest 
expansion than in any of the preceding movements. 

10. Half sidśways bending of arms. This differs from the 
preceding only in that the elbows are bent to right angle. The 
increase in difficulty of execution is, however, out of all proportion 
to the relatively slight change in joint mechanism. Here the 
tendency to raise the shoulders and to lower the elbows is even 
greater than in 'Torward bending of arms." The reasons for this 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



37 




are probably (1) the lessened availability. of the biceps for use as 
an abductor of the arm, most of its ''contracting rangę" being 
needed for flex- 
ion of the el- 
bow and supina- 
tion of the fore- 
arm ; (2) the ab- 
sence of "land- 
marks" as guides 
to the muscular 
sense, the position 
reached by the 
movement being of 
a n intermediate 
character w i t h 
possibility of dis- 
placement in every 
direction except 
backward. In "Arm 
bending" (see page 
28) the effort to ad- 
duct the arm and de- 
press the scapula are 
associated and 
are continued 

until each meets absolute resistance. Here efforts to depress the 
scapula must be made while the somewhat contrary movement of 
abduction, as well as rotation outward, of the arm is taking place. 
The difficulties which this gives rise to were discussed at length 
under "Forward bending of arms." Here, too, the additional 
attention and coordination, as well as the actual muscular work 
reąuired to find and hołd the right angle at the elbow and to keep 
the forearm in fuli supination, still further increase the difficulties. 
For these reasons the movement is not suitable for beginners. 
But when the proper coórdination has been acąuired, it is an 
excellent test of the individuars control of all the upper trunk 
and shoulder muscles, as well as an effective agent for the further 
cultivation of the control, endurance and tone of those muscles. 

11. Placing the hands behind the neck (without locking the 
fingers) with elbows as far back as possible, and the head main- 
tained in the fundamental position. (Fig. 6.) While somewhat 
similar to the preceding, it is not nearly as difficult. The joint 
mechanism is like that of "Forward bending of arms," viz. ab- 
duction in the shoulder joint, rotation upward of the scapula and 
flexion in the elbow, plus complete rotation outward in the 



Fig. 11. Half Sideways Bending of Arms. 



38 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



shoulder jomt. The muscular action, while greater in amount 
and apparently more complex than in ''Forward bending of arms" 
because of the additional action of the outward shoulder joint 
rotators — infraspinatus and teres minor — is really less difficult. 
This is due,^partly at least, to the greater ease of "finding" and 
even maintaining the terminal position, the contact of the hands 
with the neck serving as a readily available and familiar guide 
to the proper muscular efforts. This renders it easier to keep the 
shoulders down without lowering the elbows, and allows the 
individual to concentrate his attention and efforts on keeping the 
elbows well back. This, while involving hard work, is here a 
simpler problem in coordination than the corresponding effort in 
''Forward bending of arms." The shoulder joint abductors — 
deltoid and supraspinatus — and the scapular adductors — trapezius, 
rhomboids, levator anguli scapulse and latissimus dorsi — ^are here 
able to work in more perfect unison, because, by the outward 
rotation of the arm, the puli of the former, and especially of the 
posterior and central portions of the deltoid, is changed from the 
direct lateral piane to an obliąue upward and backward direction. 
This is more nearly in line with the puli of the scapular adductors. 

In this movement, as in "Arm bending," in ''Half sideways 
bending of arms" and in "Arm raising sideways with palms up," 
the complete rotation outward in the shoulder joint reąuires 
intense maximal contraction of the relatively smali outward 
rotators — ^infraspinatus and teres minor. The resistance offered 
by the more numerous and stronger inward rotators — ^latissimus 
dorsi, teres major, subscapularis and pectoralis major — is con- 
siderable even in the fundamental position of the joint. It in- 
creases rapidly as the arm is raised and at the same time moved 
backward. The anterior part of the capsular ligament with its 
accessory band, the coraco-humeral- ligament, is also made tense 
during the last stage of the rotation outward. In individuals 
whose ligaments are short and whose inward rotators are of 
relatively excessive tone — and such cases are numerous — ^the 
amount of rotation outward is often much reduced. When, for 
any reason, rotation outward in this movement is incomplete, the 
hands cannot be brought behind the neck — unless the head (and 
neck), or the elbows, are moved forward. By moving the head 
forward to meet the hands and then backward again to the fun- 
damental position, the posterior neck muscles are made to reen- 
force the rotators outward of the shoulder joint. To make this 
possible the wrist and hand must be kept straight and rigid, and 
the elbow must not be allowed to move forward. In this way the 
forearm becomes the lever through which the force of the con- 
traction of the neck muscles is transmitted to the arm. If the head 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



39 



is kept erect from the outset, and the elbows are first moved for- 
ward, then backward, the same result is obtained. 

When the amount of rotation outward in the shoulder joint is 
less than normal, or the outward rotators contract insufficiently, 
one of three things happens : the head is not brought back to the 
fundamenta! position ; or, if it is, the elbows are allowed to remain 
forward, thereby relaxing somewhat the muscles (especially the 
pectoralis major) and ligaments which resist rotation outward; 
finally, if the individual exerts himself with sufficient vigor to keep 
both the head and elbows back, the wrists and hands yield, assume 
a position of hyperextension and instead of meeting in a straight 
line, behind the neck, converge to this point by a more or less 
acute angle. If a conipromise must be made, the last mentioned 
expedient is the least objectionable. Persistent and conscientious 
efforts will in most cases lead to a sufficient stretching of the 
antagonistic structures and strengthening of the outward rotators 
of the shoulder joint to enable the individual to assume and main- 
tain the correct terminal position of this movement. While this 
process of adjustment is going on, it is best to make surę of the 
position of the head and elbows (shoulders) first, and gradually 
get the wrists and hands straighter. In this way the scapular 
adductors and depressors, and the upper erector spinse are given 
opportunity for complete and powerful contraction each time the 
position is taken, and this, as we have seen, means straightening 
and flattening of the back, as well as forcible chest' expansion. 

The movement and the position reached at the end of it are 
very useful as parts of compound movements in which the other 
elements may be trunk or leg movements. In trunk movements, 
such as forward and backward bendings, side bendings and 
twistings, the position adds to the severity and difficulty of the 
muscular work on the one hand, but on the other it helps the 
indiyidual to judge the direction and piane of the trunk move- 
ment, and so in a way facilitates correct execution. The terminal 
position, when correctly taken, also has a certain element of sta- 
bility — everything having been moved as far as possible — and this, 
too, favors accurate localization and completeness of movement 
elsewhere. 

12. Arm raising sidezvays — upzvard. The first part of this 
movement has already been discussed under "Arm raising 
sideways" with palms down, the second part under "Arm. 
raising sideways" with palms up. The mechanism of the latter 
•(whićh includes that of the former) involves incomplete abduction 
and complete rotation outward in the shoulder joint, and partial 
rotation upward of the scapula, accomplished by the action of 
the corresponding muscles, namely, the deltoid and supraspinatiis. 



40 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



infraspinatus and teres minor, trapezius and serratus . magnus. 
Besides, the action of the adductors and depressors of the scapula 
was shown to be an essential feature of these exercises, in order 
to minimize the displacement of the shoulder blade and confine 
the movement as much as possible to the shoulder joint. 

From this point on the movement consists of a completion of 
the abduction in the shoulder joint and of the rotation upward 
of the scapula. The motor muscles are therefore the same as 
before. They simply contract more completely and powerfuUy. 
The same is true of the antagonistic and steadying muscles. Of 
the latter, the latissimus dorsi and the rhomboids must contract 
with considerable force, as they share with the posterior deltoid 
and the trapezius (motor muscles) the responsibility in guiding 
the movement in (or better behind) the lateral piane of the body 
by keeping the scapula well adducted. 

The terminal position (Fig. 12) involves then the fuli rangę of 
motion in all the joints of the shoulder girdle, and is a very fair 
' index of the mobility in those joints. 

When this is limited for any reason, 
such as short, tight ligaments, or ex- 
cessiye tone or contracture of some of 
the muscles (usually the anterior), the 
arms cannot be brought to a vertical 
position. The resistance being strong- 
jl^^ est in front, on account of the tension 

I^H^ of the adductors and rotators inward 

^p/ of the shoulder joint — (latissimus) 

Ti * teres major, pectoraHs major and 

subscapularis, as well as the pectoralis 
minor, which resists the rotation up- 
ward of the scapula — there is a 
marked tendency of the arms to 
move forward as they ascend. There 
is also a strong inclination to turn the 
palms forward, instead of toward 
each other. This means incomplete 
rotation outward of the arm as 
well as incomplete supination of the 
forearm. If the amount of mobility in 
the shoulder joint is normal, the ten- 
dency of the arms to move forward is 
usuaily overcome by a sufficiently yig- 
orous contraction of the deltoid (es- 
pecially its posterior and central por- 
tions), the trapezius, the rhomboids 




Fig. is 



Position Reached by Arm 

RAISING SIDEWAYS - UPWARD 

OR Forward - upward, or 
Arm Stretching Upward. 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



41 



and the latissimiis, while complete and intense contraction of the 
infraspinatus, teres minor and the supinators of the forearm are 
necessary to keep the palms turned toward each other. When 
mobihty is limited on accoiint of shortness of the muscles and 
fibrons structures in front, so that the arms cannot be brought to 
the vertical position, shoulder distance apart, the expedient of 
bending backward in the lumbar spine is often resorted to (usually 
quite unconsciously), thereby obtaining an appearance of correct 
position at the end of the movement. This is of course to be dis- 
couraged. A more acceptable terminal position in such cases 
is one with the arms in the transverse piane of the body, but 
directed more or less obliąuely outward and upward, perhaps al- 
lowing the elbows to bend a little so that the hands are not much 
more than shoulder distance apart. This insures complete con- 
traction of the posterior muscles, while subjecting the resistant 
structures to as much tension as the individual can or cares to 
exert. At the same time he is not deceived into thinking that he 
is doing one movement while he is really doing another, and one 
which he is better off without. When the correct terminal po- 
sition is obtained the strong tension on the pectorals and latissimus, 
as well as the sustained, powerful contraction of the lower 
serratus exert a correspondingly vigorous puli on the ribs to which 
these muscles are attached. This results in a very marked chest 
expansion. 

The return to the fundamental position (arms straight, moving 
through the side piane) is accomplished by gravity, the muscles 
which produced the first movement now being the antagonistic 
force, remaining in a state of ''eccentric" contraction and so 
regulating the speed of the return movement. The steadying 
muscles are the same as before, while the former antagonistic 
muscles (adductors and rotators inward of the shoulder joint and 
rotators downward of the scapula) now aid gravity by their 
increased action, especially if the return movement is a ąuick one. 

13. Arm raising forward to the horizontal position. The 
hands are kept at shoulder distance. The movement is principally 
a flexion in the shoulder joint, but includes also a certain amount 
of displacement of the shoulder girdle. This displacement varies 
in kind and amount according to the habitu al position of the 
scapula and upper back, the shape of the chest, and the amount of 
muscular control possessed by the individual. Ordinarily, the 
whole scapula moves away from the mid-spinal line — is abducted ; 
its lower angle swings outward and forward ; and the piane of 
the scapula is changed from one approximately parallel with the 
back to one more nearly approaching the sagittal piane of the 
body. At the same time the yertebral scapular border is brought 



42 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 




Fig. 13. 

PosiTiON Reached by Arm Raising For- 
WARD, or Arm Stretching Forward. 



away from the back and 
may be seen or felt sharply 
projecting under the skin. 
In other words, the scapula 
revolves around its longi- 
tudinal axis and ais o 
swings outward, pendulnm 
fashion, by a gliding move- 
ment in the acromio-clavi- 
cular joint, while at the 
same time the outer end of 
the clavicle travels forward 
by a movement in the ster- 
nal-clavicular joint. The 
disjDłacement of the scap- 
ula is therefore neither a 
true rotation upward nor a 
simple abduction in the 
senses in which these terms 
are ordinarily used. 

The muscles producing 
the flexion in the shoulder 
joint are the anterior portion of the deltoid and the upper (cla- 
yicular) portion of the pectoralis major, aided by the short (and 
long) head of the biceps and 
the coraco-brachialis. The 
displacements of the shoulder 
girdle forward are partly due 
to the passiye tension of the 
teres major and minor, which 
always occurs when the arm 
moves away from the body ; 
partly to the contraction of the 
serratus magnus, especially its 
lower and middle portions, as 
well as of the lower and mid- 
dle trapezius (Mollier). If 
the movement is vigorous and 
quick, and especially if the 
effort is made to reach as far 
forward as possible, the whole 
pectoralis major and the whole 

serratus are active. The pec- -pio. u. 

toralis minor and the levator faulty arm raising forward. 







1 ^^^^1 





UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



43 



anguli scapulse are probably also then associated with the other 
muscles. 

So far what might be called the "non-gymnastic" type of the 
movement has been described. For certain reasons already al- 
hided to under "Forward bending of arms" (see page 33) it 
is not desirable to do movements in this way in gymnastic prac- 
tice. Here our object should be to avoid as much as possible dis- 
placements of the shoulder girdle. In the exercises so far 
analyzed the fixations of the scapula were (1) in conn^^ction with 
rotation outward in the shoulder joint, as in "Arm bending," 
where the effort to resist the rotation upward of the scapula as- 
sociated with abduction of the arm was the chief f eature ; (2) in 
connection with simple abduction of the arm as in "Arm raising 
sideways" and in "Forward bending of arms," demanding con- 
scious effort to resist abduction, elevation and excessive rotation 
upward of the scapula; (3) in connection with combined abduc- 
tion and rotation outward in the shoulder joint, occurring in ''Arm 
raising sideways with palms up," in ''Half sideways bending of 
arms" and in "Placing hands behind neck," reąuiring even 
greater effort to resist the tendency to elevation, abduction and 
rotation upward of the scapula, associated and partly replaced in 
the last-named movement with special effort to keep the head in 
the fundamental position. In "Arm raising forward" the dis- 
placements of the shoulder girdle described above are freąuently 
excessive and obviously of a very undesirable kind, strongly tend- 
ing to emphasize faulty structural relations and to encourage or 
confirm "vicious" motor habits in this region. For these reasons 
the first definition of the movement should be ąualified by reąuiring 
that the scapular displacements be reduced to a minimum. This 
at once changes the character of the movement from an easy, 
natural one to an exercise of considerable difhculty and hard 
work. It brings into action all the scapular adductors, and as they 
work in opposition to the direction of the main movement, a 
considerable amount of coórdination, as well as vigorous contrac- 
tion, is reąuired to enable them to maintain a fair degree of fixa- 
tion of the scapula. They are also at a mechanical disadvantage, 
particularly as compared with the indirect abductor of the scapula, 
the pectoralis major. Although only the clavicular portion of the 
latter contracts when the movement is done slowly and easily, 
the whole muscle is active whenever a ąuick or forcible movement 
is attempted, and especially when the hands^are brought nearer 
together than shoulder distance. This is apt to be the case unless 
guarded against. By successful managementj of the scapular ad- 
ductors, the terminal position is changed from one with more or 
less rounded back and depressed chest to one with relatively 



44 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



straight, flat back and moderately expanded chest, results which 
always accompany the proper interplay of the scapular fixators. 

Because the problem in coórdination offered in this exercise is 
one of some difficulty, it is wisest not to introduce it too early in 
gymnastic training, but to wait until a fair degree of contro! of 
the scapular muscles has been acąuired by the practice of some of 
the easier shoulder blade exercises, in which the movement of the 
arms, and therefore the action of the shoulder joint muscles, is 
less in opposition to the action of the scapular adductors and 
depressors. 

14. Arm parting, following ''Arm raising forward." From 
the horizontal position in front the arms are moved directly back- 
ward in the horizontal piane. The palms may be turned down or 
up. Anatomically this is equivalent to abduction in the shoulder 
joint, with adduction of the scapula, and slight rotation inward 
or complete rotation outward in the shoulder joint according as 
the palms are turned down or up. The former will be assumed 
in this case. The motor muscles are the posterior half of the del- 
toid, the trapezius, especially its central portion, aided by the rhom- 
boids. The terminal position is the same as that reached by ''Arm 
raising sideways." The same difificulties are encountered here, 
viz., the tendency of the shoulders to rise and of the arms to droop. 
This- is particularly marked if the movement is ąuick or the re- 
sistance increased by chest weights, dumb bells, etc. Under such 
conditions special effort is also needed to keep the head and neck 
from moving forward and the lower back from excessive arching. 
This, it will be readily seen, is equivalent to a bending of the 
upper back. By allowing this to happen, one of the main objects 
of the movement — its corrective effect — is defeated, it being one 
of the most commonly used and typical "setting-up" exercises. 

The muscles whose vigorous contraction is necessary for the 
proper execution of the movement are the scapular depressors, 
notably the lower trapezius and the latissimus, the posterior neck 
and abdominal muscles. Because of the difficulty of properly co- 
ordinating the action of all these muscles (described at length 
under ''Forward bending of arms"), it is best to practice the move- 
ment slowly at first, and with little or no weight in the hands. 

The return movement is accomplished by the contraction of the 
anterior deltoid, the serratus magnus (lower and central portions) 
and the pectoralis major (chiefly the upper portion). The diffi- 
culties here, and the secondary muscular action called forth in 
overcoming them, are similar to those described in "Arm raising 
forward." 

15. Arm raising forward-npward. Having reached the hori- 
zontal position in front, as described in "Arm raising forward," 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 45 

the continuation of the movement upward to the yertical position — 
arms straight overhead, palms facing each other — brings about a 
position of the joints identical with that obtained by ''Arm raising 
sideways-iipward," viz., complete abduction and rotation' outward 
in the shoulder joint, complete rotation upward of the scapula and 
complete supination of the forearm. That the changes of position 
in the shoulder joint, occurring gradually as the movement pro- 
ceeds, are really a blending of those which are termed abduction 
and rotation outward when started from the fundamental position 
of this joint, plus a rotation upward of the scapula, may perhaps be 
more readily understood if the component parts of the movement 
are imagined, for the sake of illustration, to occur one at a time in 
a certain seąuence. Assume for the moment that ''Arm raising 
forward" is a pure flexion of ninety degrees in the shoulder joint 
(with a few degrees of rotation outward), the scapula remaining 
immovable. Now move the arm backward as in ''Arm parting." 
That brings the shoulder joint into a position of complete abduc- 
tion. Next, turn the palms up. This involves complete rotation 
outward in the .shoulder joint and complete supination of the fore- 
arm. Finally, rotate the scapula upward on its central (hori- 
zontal) axis, and (with a little additional abduction in the 
shoulder joint) the vertical position of the arms with the palms 
turned inward is reached.* The real movement is simply a 
"short-cut," and its different elements take place gradually 
and simultaneously. The abduction and rotation of the scapula 
on its length axis occurring when the movement passes through 
the horizontal position (see ''Arm raising forward") are some- 
what reversed during the last stage, as the arm is forced into the 
yertical position. 

The active muscles during the last half of the movement (from 
the horizontal to the vertical) are (1) the posterior deltoid, which 
aided by the active resistance of the latissimus and teres major, 
accomplishes the backward movement of the arm in the shoulder 
joint (corresponding to abduction), and also contributes to the 
rotation outward in this joint; (2) the infraspinatus and teres 
minor, which are chiefly responsible for this rotation outward ; (3) 
the trapezius, whose yigorous contraction, aided by the continued 
action of the serratus, completes the rotation upward of the 
scapula; and (4) the rhomboids and levator anguli scapulae, which, 
while antagonistic to the rotation upward, help the trapezius to 
adduct the scapula and to press it into closer apposition to the back. 
In this, during the finał stage of the movement, they are asęociated 



*An absolutely vertical position of the upper arm is probably only obtained by in- 
dividuals with exceptionally fi ee mobility in the joints of the shoulder girdle. Mollier 
is of the opinion that it never occurs without compensatory trunk movements. 



46 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



with and aided by the latissimus through its puli on the arm in a 
backward-inward (as well as downward) direction. 

Here, as in "Arm raising sideways-upward," the resistance due 
to stretching of ligaments and antagonistic muscles increases 
rapidly during the last stage of the movement. Limitations of 
mobility on this account, or insufficient effort on the part of the 
motor muscles, are shown by the same faulty or incomplete ter- 
minal position as was described in "Arm raising sideways-up- 
ward." Compensatory backward bending in the lumbar spine is 
here even more marked, especially if the movement is done 
ąuickly, or with weights in the hands. But by doing it ąuickly 
(without weights) and taking particular care not to hyper-extend 
the lower back, the resistant anterior structures may be subjected 
to an even more forcible stretching than in "Arm raising side- 
ways-upward." 

The return movement, if slow, is accomplished by gravity, the 
former motor and steadying muscles still remaining in a state of 
contraction (eccentric) to check the speed and determine the piane 
of the movement. If the latter is done ąuickly, the former antago- 
nistic muscles — latissimus, teres major, pectoralis major, sub-scap- 
laris and the rotators downward of the scapula, principally the 
rhomboids and pectoralis minor — contract with greater vigor, 
while the deltoid, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, trape- 
zius and serratus relax more or less. As it is usually desired to 
work the latter set as much as possible, and at the same time 
to stretch the pectorals and anterior ligaments of the shoulder 
joint, the return to the fundamental position is better done through 
the side piane (sideways-downward) . The whole movement is 
then what is called ''Arm Circumdnction'' or "Arm Circling." 

16. Arm stretching upzuard, following "Arm bending." This 
too, brings the arms to the same terminal position as does "Arm 
raising sideways-upward," viz. with the shoulder joint in a po- 
sition of complete abduction and rotation outward, the scapula 
completely rotated upward and the forearm supinated. Starting, 
however, from the position reached by "Arm bending," the com- 
plete outward rotation in the shoulder joint and the supination of 
the forearm have already taken place. "Arm stretching upward" 
involves then, further, complete abduction in the shoulder joint, 
complete rotation upward of the scapula, and extension of the 
elbow. The muscles concerned in this are the same as those 
responsible for the same elements -of "Arm raising sideways- 
upward" — the deltoid and supraspinatus (and biceps) the trape- 
zius and serratus magnus — as well as the triceps. The other 
adductors of the scapula — the rhomboids and the levator anguli 
scapula — ^although antagonistic to the upward rotary action of the 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



A7 



trapezius, by their adduction of the scapula contribute an im- 
portant share in the effort to keep the arm moving through or 
behind the lateral piane of thei body, and in keeping it well back 
in the terminal position. The deltoid (posterior half) is also 
responsible for this, and must contract with utmost vigor to 
accomplish it. In this effort to keep the arm back the active re- 
sistance offered by the latissimus also plays an important role 
during the last stage of the movement. The return movement of 
"Arm bending" from the position with arms overhead, whether 
quick or slow, involves powerful and complete contraction of the 
adductors of the shoulder joint — latissimus, teres major, pectoralis 
major and the long head of the triceps ; the rotators downward of 
the scapula — rhomboids (levator anguli scapulse) and pectoralis 
minor ; and the flexors of the elbow — biceps and brachialis anticus. 
The rotators outward of the shoulder joint should remain in a 
State of complete contraction, while the now antagonistic abductors 
of the shoulder joint, and rotators upward of the scapula con- 
tract "eccentrically" more or kss according to the speed of the 
movement. 

17. Arm stretching sidezvays, foUowing "Arm bending." 
This is like "Arm raising sideways," except that, starting from a 
position with the arms rotated outward and the elbow flexed, there 
is additional rotation inward in the shoulder joint and extension 
in the elbow joint. This means action of the corresponding mus- 
cles added to the muscular mechanism of "Arm raising sideways." 
Otherwise, the action of motor, steadying and fixator muscles is 
the same as described under that movement (see page 30). 

The return movement is in all respects similar to that already 
described under "Arm bending" from the fundamental position. 

18. Arm stretching forzuard, following "Arm bending" is 
like "Arm raising forward," plus rotation inward in the shoulder 
joint and extension in the elbow joint with the corresponding 
musular action. 

The return movement is identical with "Arm bending" from 
the fundamental position. 

19. Arin stretching backzvard, following "Arm bending." The 
hands are thrust downward and as far backward as possible 
Ziithout distiirhing the position of the chest, shoniders and back. 
It involves, therefore, rotation inward and hyperextension in the 
shoulder joint. The motor muscles are the latissimus dorsi, teres 
major, subscapularis (pectoralis major and the anterior deltoid). 
As the amount of hyperextension in the shoulder joint is very 
slight, the arm cannot go. far behind the piane of the back with- 
out displacement of the scapula. "When the movement is done 



48 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



yigorously, this is extremely likely to happen, unless guarded 
against by emphatic admonitions. The displacement of the scap- 
ula referred to is of a particularly uildesirable kind. It is an eleva- 
tion, combined with complete rotation downward and, besides, a 
tilting of the bone so that its upper border moves forward, causing 
the point of the shoulder to project, while its lower angle moves 
backward and protrudes markedly under the skin. This dis- 
placement is caused by the excessive action of the latissimus in its 
effort to produce hyperextension combined with rotation inward 
in the shoulder joint. The coraco-humeral ligament and anterior 
part of the capsule are soon tense, and further action of the latis- 
simus, with good leverage through the.arm, pries the scapula into 
the tilted position described above. This is made more pronounced 
by the "sympathetic" action of the levator anguli scapulse, which 
puUs the upper end of the bone somewhat forward as well as up- 
ward. It also rotates the scapula downward. There is probably 
also induced contraction of the other rotators downward of the 
scapula — rhomboids and pectorahs minor. The action of the 
latter also tends to make the tilting more pronounced. 

To check this tendency to scapular displacements, the trapezius 
and the serratus magnus (lower and middle) must contract pow- 
erfully. When this is done the movement may be as ąuick and 
energetic as the individual is able to make it. Because of the 
pecuHar antagonistic and forcible action of the latissimus, serratus 
and pectorals, all of which are attached to the ribs, the chest ex- 
pansion is very extreme in this exercise, providing it is properly 
done. 

The distinctive feature of all the arm stretchings in the different 
directions, preceded by arm bending, is that they are capable of 
being done with great speed and vigor. This favors correct 
execution by calling for more initial intensity of the muscular 
contractions, and by forcibly stretching the resistant structures 
through the very momentum of the moving arm. This, in turn, 
is help ful in insuring completeness of movement in the joints. 
To make this count for as much as possible the terminal po- 
sitions should be held for at least a brief space of time. Otherwise 
the recoil of the ligaments and muscles whose resistance has been 
overcome would tend to make the movements oscillatory in char- 
acter, with all the loss of effectiveness that this implies. To avoid 
such rebound with accompanying muscular relaxation, it is of 
advantage to make the rhythm uneven by doing the stretching 
movement faster than the bending, and by holding the terminal 
position reached by the former slightly longer than that reached 
iDy the latter. * 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



49 



B. SUSPENSION EXERCISES. 

20. The Hanging Position.'-^ When the body is suspended on 
the arms the joints of the shoulder girdle and arm remain in the 
positions reached by ''Arm raising" or "Arm stretching upward," 
viz. complete abduction and rotation outward in the shoulder 
joint, complete rotation upward of the scapula and complete supi- 
nation of the forearm. But here gravity, instead of muscular 
contraction, maintains these positions of the joints. 

In what may be called the rela.red hanging position the weight 
of the whole body, with the exception of the arms, is passively 
suspended on the ligaments and muscles which were antagonistic 
in "Arm raising" or "Arm stretching upward," principally the 
pectorals, subscapularis, latissimus, teres major and the rhom- 
boids. Ali these are subjected to strong tension, and on their 
relative length, tone and extensibility will depend the amount of 
chest expansion and straightening of the back produced. When 
these muscles and ligaments are short, and mobility in the joints 
of the shoulder girdle and upper spine limited, the posturę of the 
back and chest may not be influenced as much as might be ex- 
pected or desired. Of course freąuent and prolonged passive sus- 
pension will in time stretch the resistant structures somewhat and 
so make possible a better hanging as well as standing position. 

In what we will cali the active hanging position the tension on 
the resistant structures is increased by effort on the part of the 
individual to "throw out his chest." This involves here, as al- 
ways, contraction of the scapular adductors and depressors. The 
lower and middle trapezius and rhomboids act most directly and 
effectiyely in this effort. The latissimus and the posterior and 
central portions of the deltoid also aid powerfully, the immediate 
purpose of their contraction being to bring the arms and trunk 
into line. As the arms cannot move backward, the trunk must 
move forward and upward between the shoulders, so to speak. 
This is simply another way of describing abduction in the shoulder 
joint, adduction, depression and slight rotation downward of the 
scapula. As this bone cannot really move much in this position, 
the arms being fixed, the trunk is here the moving segment. Any 
forward-upward movement of the trunk means chest expansion, 
providing the back is kept straight. This is done by the con- 
traction of the erector spinae group, which is usually, if not 
always, associated with vigorous contraction of the scapular ad- 
ductors and depressors. When the action of all these muscles is 
very strong, there is apt to be an excessive arching of the 



*In order to avoid too much detail it will be assumed that the position is taken on 
some such apparatus as the suspended parallel bars, with hands facing each other. 



50 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



lower back and sometimes a 
sli^ht adduction in the shoul- 
der joint (spreading of the 
arms), flexion in the elbow 
and some real rotation down- 
ward of the scapula. Any or 
all of these effects may be 
chiefly due to the excessive 
action of the latissimus dorsi 
and erector spinse, but are 
probably contributed to by the 
combined action of all the 
muscles enumerated, as well 
as -by irresistible associated 
contraction of the pectorals 
and biceps. When the last 
three are innervated suffi- 
ciently, arm bending or "puli 
up" is the result. The exces- 
sive arching of the back is 
difficult to eliminate, as the 
muscular action necessary for 
this must now take place un- 
der conditions of fixation en- 
tirely different from normal, 
and largely the reverse. Any 
effort to straighten the hollow 
in the lower back usually leads to a generał rounding of the whole 
back and a raising of the legs. The reason for this is the diffi- 
culty, considerable even in the standing position, of dissociating 
the action of the abdominal muscles from that of the pectorals and 
hip joint flexors under these changed conditions of fixation. This 
matter will be further discussed under *'Arm bending from the 
hanging position." 

The value of the ''hanging position" as a gymnastic exercise 
depends then on the degree to which it is "active" in the sense 
described above. The distance between the hands is important in 
this connection. For the well-built individual shoulder distance 
will do, but it is better to have more than less. The position with 
the hands close together usually means here, as in "Arrn raising 
and stretching upward," a failure to bring the arms and trunk 
into line, that is, insufficient straightening of the back and in- 
complete chest expansion to compensate for the (then artificially) 
limited rangę of motion in the joints of the shoulder girdle. The 
spreading of the arms allows them to move further backward, or, 




Fig. 15. 

The Active Hanging Position 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



51 



what is the same thing, allows the trunk to move further forward, 
by the contraction of the scapular adductors, latissimus and del- 
toid. These muscles are now working with better mechanical ad- 
Yantage, less obhąuity and greater leverage, while the pectorals 
do not profit correspondingly by increasing the distance between 
the arms. For what they gain in these respfects in the lateral 
piane by the spreading of the arms is more than neutralized by 
their increased obliquity and diminished leverage in the antero- 
posterior piane by the relatively more posterior position of the 
arms, In fact, the chief effect of this on the pectorals is to 
maintain and even increase their tension, thereby enhancing, 
especially in the antero-posterior piane, the generał chest expan- 
sion, which is already considerable o.wing to the puli of the latis- 
simus, the stretching of the lower serratus and the strong con- 
traction of the longitudinal back muscles. 

At the same time, by increasing the distance between the hands, 
the weight leverage increases relatively more than the muscular 
leverage. This, together with the better opportunity for work 
offered the trapezius, deltoid, latissimus and rhomboids, and the 
undiminished static (or even ecc.entric) contraction of the pec- 
torals, tends to make the position with the hands far apart de- 
cidedly ''active." 

21. Suspension exercises derived from or similar to the hang- 
ing position. What has been said regarding the hanging position 
applies eąually to exercises derived from it, such as hand traveling 
forward, backward and sideways, with straight arms, on the 
ladders, suspended parallel bars, boom, etc. ;. or variations such 
as swinging and traveling on the rings ; or suspension exercises 
with additions such as knee-upward bending and leg raising. In 
the last named the additional elements involve the joints and 
muscles of the lower trunk and will again be referred to. 

In hand traveling the weight of the whole body is suspended a 
yarying length of time on one arm. When this period is of brief 
duration, as in straight, forward or backward traveling by very 
short "steps" on the horizontal ladder or suspended parallel bars, 
there is only a slight difference from the ''hanging position," 
chiefly one of degree, in the action of the muscles concerned. 
This may, in the case of individuals with relatively weak shoulder 
and trunk muscles and considerable weight, be enough to pre- 
clude success. The scapular muscles on the supporting side in 
conjunction with the abdominal and back muscles on the opposite 
side are then not able to hołd the body rigid long enough, nor to 
give it sufficient twist (which is chiefly a rotation outward or in- 
ward in the shoulder joint of the supporting side) to allow the 
released hand to be shifted. 



52 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



In traveling on the rings the body is in what we have called the 
relaxed hanging position, on one arm, the greater part of the 
swinging period, with extreme rotation upward, elevation and 
abduction of the scapula, and eąually extreme abduction in the 
shoulder joint. The successful grasping of the next ring depends 
partly on the skilful management of momentum (including the 
twist), gained in releasing the last ring, partly on a sufficiently 
powerful and well-timed effort to produce rotation outward in the 
shoulder joint of the supporting side (if the turn is forward, in- 
ward if the turn is backward). This is combined with a ris- 
ing movement of the trunk, corresponding to a slight depression, 
adduction and rotation downward of the scapula on the same 
side. There is also some real twisting of the trunk towards this 
side. The latter is sometimes aided by a scissors-like movement 
with the legs to furnish the necessary momentum. 

Rotary traveling forward or backward on ladder, bars or boom 
is practically identical with traveling on tlie rings, except that 
the swinging period is briefer. 

Ali exercises of the character indicated by the examples given 
are extremely valuable for improving the posturę of the upper 
part of the body, for increasing the mobility of the chest and 
training the mechanical part of the respiratory organs, as well as 
for strengthening and developing the musculature of the upper 
trunk, shoulders and arms. They reąuire comparatively little 
skill and include types easy enough for the weakest. To produce 
the greatest benefit they must, however, be done with due regard 
to good form, i.e. posturę, and be of the "active" rather than the 
"relaxed" variety. 

22. Arm hending from the hanging position. As in "Arm 
bending" from the fundamental standing position, there are many 
variations of this movement, e.g. with reverse grasp, ordinary 
(over) grasp, combined grasp; with elbows moving forward, or 
more or less sideways ; hands close together or far apart. The 
most common is the familiar ''puU-up" or "chinning the bar," 
usually done with the reverse grasp, sometimes with one hand on 
each side of the bar, generally with the hands less than shoulder 
distance apart, and always with elbows moving forward. The 
reverse grasp will be assumed in analyzing the movement. 

In the hanging position with the reverse grasp, the weight of the 
body may be said to be suspended on the (flexors and) extensors, 
adductors and rotators inward of the shoulder joint, the adduc- 
tors, depressors and rotators downward of the scapula, and the 
flexors of the elbow. When the tone of these muscles is good, the 
ligaments are not called upon to bear ,much weight, unless the 
body is suddenly dropped into this position. The reverse grasp 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



53 



demands more twisting of the arm 
than can be met by even the 
most extreme rotation outward in 
the shoulder joint and supina- 
tion of the forearm. This necessi- 
tates a supplementary adjust- 
ment of the humerus, scapula and 
trunk, relative to each other, 
equivalent to a smali amount of 
extension in the shoulder joint 
(moving the arms forward-down- 
ward) with a forced abduction 
and rotation upward of the 
scapula, as well as a tilting of this 
bone, bringing it to a position on 
the side and top of the chest, 
with its lower angle projecting in 
the posterior axilla. This adjust- 
ment is caused in the first instance 
by the forcible stretching of the 
pectoralis major, subscapularis 
and teres major, all producing ro- 
tation inward in the shoulder joint, and by their tension checking 
rotation outward. 

Arm bending from this position, with the elhozus moving for- 
ward, is a flexion in the elbow, extension and partial rotation in- 
ward in the shoulder joint, and a rotation downward with in- 
complete adduction and depression of the scapula. The muscles 
which bring about the movement are the pectoralis major and 
minor, the subscapularis, the latissimus dorsi and teres major, the 
rhomboids, biceps and brachialis anticus. 

The extreme abduction of the scapula induced by the reverse 
grasp places the humerus in such a position that the puli of the 
pectoralis major, latissimus, subscapularis and teres major will 
more readily move it forward-downward than in any other direc- 
tion. This piane of the movement offers the most favorable me- 
chanical conditions — least obliąuity and best leverage — for all the 
muscles, with the possible exception of the latissimus. This works 
perhaps eąually well when the arm moves in the lateral piane. 
The pectoralis minor, too, is able to work to best advantage with 
the scapula in this postion of extreme abduction, its action being 
then most direct and effective in producing rotation downward 
of the scapula. Finally, the weight leverage increases at a less 
rapid rate when the arms move forward than is the case when 
they move in a more lateral piane. This reduction (or rather, 




54 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



least possible increase) of weight leverage is made possible by 
the forward movement of the lower part of the trunk and legs 
to compensate for the backward movement of the head, shoulders 
and upper trunk, thus keeping the weight of the body as a whole 
well under the points of support. The forward movement of 
the lower trunk is in part due to the puli of the latissimus, whose 
fibres run forward and upward when the arm moves forward, 
partly to the almost involuntary contraction of the abdominal 
muscles. This in turn induces contraction of the flexors of the 
hip joint, being at all times even more intimately associated, 
functionally, with the abdominal muscles than the latter are with 
the pectorals. The result of all this is not only to draw the body 
forward sufficiently to keep the center of gravity under the point 
of support, thus reducing the weight leverage to a minimum, but 
even to overdo it, by raising the legs forward. This necessitates 
displacement of an eąual amount of weight backward, accom- 
plished by extreme rounding of the upper back, with accompany- 
ing contraction of the chest. The last two features may, however, 
be somewhat obviated by conscious effort on the part of the 
individual to keep his chest expanded and to refrain from raising 
the legs. In any case, a better position of the back, chest and 
scapulse may be obtained by keeping the hands far apart. But 
this also makes the exercise harder, because the elbows are not 
then moved forward as readily, and the mechanical conditions 
are less favorable (see below). 

Another feature usually occurring in this exercise is the marked 
forward position of the head. It is partly a result of the back- 
ward convexity of the upper thoracic spine, partly due to the 
strong puli of the sterno-mastoid and the other anterior neck 
muscles, which, like the abdominal muscles, are closely associated 
with the pectorals. This fault is often exaggerated by the in- 
dividuars desire to ''chin" the bar in the traditionally approved 
style. 

On acceunt of the strong tendency to a poor position of the 
shoulder blades, chest, back and head in this form of the move- 
ment,it is of no value as a corrective exercise, if it does not.indeed, 
work the other way. But it is useful in developing and strength- 
ening the chest and arm muscles, as it always involves complete 
and powerful contraction of these muscles. Because the resist- 
ance to be overcome — the whole body weight — is so great, relative 
to the size and leverage of the muscles, the latter are soon fa- 
tigued, and the average man can repeat the exercise only a com- 
paratively smali number of times, while the majority of women 
and many men cannot do it at all, although it is the easiest type 
of "Arm bending from the hanging position." 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 55 



Arm hending zmth ordinary grasp, elbozvs mozńng sideways. 
When the exercise is done with the ordinary grasp — hands on the 
near side of the bar (overgrasp) 
and at least shoulder distance 
apart — there is not such extreme 
rotation outward in the shoulder 
joint with the resultant forced ab- 
duction of the scapula. The el- 
bows do not tend to move as far 
forward as when the reverse 
grasp is iised, although they can be 
made to do so by conscious 
effort. On the other hand, they 
can be more readily moved in or 
near the transverse piane of the 
body ; but conscious effort is needed 
here, too. 

• This type of the exercise calls 
for vigorous action. of the del- 
toid (posterior and central por- 
tions) and the latissimus dorsi, re- 
inforced by the associated con- 
traction of the scapular adductors, 
trapezius and rhomboids. The fig. 17. 

scapula is thereby kept in good arm bending from the hanging 
apposition to the back during its position with ordinary grasp. 
rotation downward, which, it 

will be remembered, is a part of the arm bending. This puts 
the pectoralis minor, one of the rotators downward of the scapula, 
at a mechanical disadvantage, making its puli very obliąue and 
somewhat *'around the corner" (the side of the upper chest). 
Thus a large part of its force is spent in traction on the ribs to 
which it is attached (third, fourth and fifth), leading to their 
elevation: The lateral piane of the arm movement puts the 
pectoralis major, too, at a mechanical disadvantage, keeping the 
majority of its fibres very nearly in line with the humerus and 
close to the shoulder joint. Moreover, as the movement pro- 
gresses, the weight leverage increases much more rapidly than 
the leverage of the latissimus, biceps, rhomboids and trapezius. 
Here the "curling up" of the trunk and legs is of no advantage. 
Because of this rapidly increasing weight leverage, in addition to 
the poor leverage and obliąue puli of the pectorals, arm bending 
with the elbows moving in the side piane is a much harder 
exercise than arm bending with the reverse grasp and elbows 
moving forward. But on the other hand, the contraction of the 




56 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



pectorals, while not being of much help in the production of the 
niovement, is an important factor in the forcible expansion of 
the upper chest. This, as well as straightening and flattening of 
the back, is a marked feature in this type of arm bending, because 
of the strong contraction of the scapular depressors and the 
longitudinal back muscles. 

The unfayorable mechanical conditions in this type of arm 
bending make it more difficult and severe than any other. But 
these same conditions bring about the kind of muscular interplay 
which is most effective for purposes of postural improvement, 
namely, forcible stretching of the anterior ligaments and the pec- 
torals — the latter being made very tense in their efforts to con- 
tract — and complete shortening against great resistance of the 
scapular adductors and posterior depressors and rotators down- 
ward. For purposes of developing the musculature of the upper 
trunk and extremity,. this exercise is at least as efifectiye as any 
type of arm bending. There is this drawback, however, being 
so hard to do, there are many people who have not the reąuisite 
strength to even attempt it. To acąuire the strength, milder ex- 
ercises with the same muscular mechanism may be practiced, 
such as arm bending with the overhead pulley weights ; or modi- 
fications where a part of the weight is borne by the legs, such as 
"Arm stretching and bending with knee bending and stretching," 
done standing, with the bar, rings, ropes, etc, at the height of 
the chin ; or arm bending from the "Fali hanging position," with 
the rigid body inclined more or less and supported in front on the 
heels (see below). Both of these exercises, while more complex 
in their mechanism and more generał in their distribution of mus- 
cular work, are relatively easy as far as coórdination is concerned. 
As regards the amount of local muscular work they may be 
graded to suit every individual. 

23. The Fali hanging position, referred to above, involves the 
lower trunk and hip regions to a considerable extent. As re- 
gards the shoulder, the joints are in approximately the same 
positions as are reached by "Arm raising forward," viz. flexion 
in the shoulder joint, abduction, rotation upward and some ele- 
vation of the scapula. The arms being fixed, the trunk, held 
rigid by the longitudinal back muscles, tends to drop down 
between the shoulder blades. This is prevented by the latissimus 
and the scapular adductors, trapezius and rhomboids, together 
forming a sort of sling in which a part of the body weight is sus- 
pended. The other part is supported on the heels. 

Here, as in the "hanging position," the exercise may be more or 
less relaxed, involving merely passive tension on the above named 
muscles. It is then of łittle value. But it becomes a good cor- 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



57 



rective exercise when the 
proper muscular action — vig- 
orous contraction of the kd- 
ductors and depressors of the 
scapula and the upper prolon- 
gations of the erector spinae — 
is induced by efforts to raise 
the chest and to throw the 
head back with "chin drawn 
in." It is also suitable as a 
prehminary to the morę typi- 
cal suspension exercises. This 
is even more trne of the fol- 
lowing. 

24. Arm bending froiii the 
Fali hanging position. As in 
arm bending from the "hang- 
iiig position" the elbows may 
move through any piane be- 
tween the antero-posterior 
and the lateral. fig. is. 

When the elbows move for- ^he fall hanging position. 
ward there is extension in the 
shoulder joint, rotation down- 

ward with very little adduction of the scapula, and flexion in the 
elbow. The motor muscles are the pectorals, working with good 
leverage and decreasing obliąuity; the latissimus dorsi and teres 
major, also with favorable mechanical conditions ; the rhomboids 
and trapezius, at a disadvantage and unable to produce much 
scapular adduction, having to contend against gravity as well as 
the more powerful and mechanically better favored pectorals. The 
biceps and other flexors of the elbow are of course also active. 
This is the easiest way to do the arm bending and, as usual when 
that is the case, the least favorable for good posturę of the chest 
and back. 

When the elbows move sideways there is a movement cor- 
responding to abduction combined with extension in the shoulder 
joint, adduction with partial rotation downward of the scapula, 
and flexion in the elbow. There should also be conscious effort 
to depress the scapula, because the tendency here, as in ''forward 
bending of arms," is to raise the shoulders, the muscular action 
being very much the same as in the latter movement. The deltoid 
and supraspinatus contract vigorously, as do also the latissimus, 
teres major, trapezius and rhomboids. The flexors of the elbow 
-contribute their share, as in the preceding movement. The pec- 




58 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 




Fig. 19. 

ARM BENDING FROM THE FALL HANGING 
POSITION. 



torals, however, are less ac- 
tive, and even if they contract, 
physiológically, they do not 
shorten much, if at all, and 
may even be somewhat 
stretched, if the depression of 
the shoulders with the accom- 
panying chest expansion is 
forcible enough. 

■ 25. Climhing on the verti- 
cal ropes. As far as the 
shoulder region is concerned 
the mechanism of this exercise 
is Hke that of "Arm bending 
from the hanging position" 
with the reverse grasp, hands 
close together and elbows 
moving forward. When prop- 
erly done, the arms are re- 
Heved of a part of the weight 
during their bending by the 
simultaneous straightening of 
the legs, which have been pre- 
yiously drawn up and made to grasp the rope. 

To favor a better position of the chest, shoulders, and back, 
the exercise may be done on two ropes. This gives opportunity 
to move the arms in the side piane, because of the greater dis- 
tance between the hands. With a little pracHce the leg grasp is 
not much more difficult than when a single rope is used. This 
modification of the exercise changes the muscular action in a way 
already described under ''Arm bending from the hanging po- 
sition" with overgrasp and hands far apart. When the ability 
has been acąuired to shift the hands simultaneously and to hołd, 
momentarily, an erect hanging position just before the legs are 
raised, the exercise has considerable corrective value, something 
the ordinary form of climbing, on one rope, lacks entirely. 

26. Starting the swing from the hanging position. This is an 
excellent suspension movement in itself and is, besides, a neces- 
sary preliminary to many exercises on suspension apparatus. Like 
some of the preceding and following exercises, it involves, of 
course, more muscles and joints than those of the shoulder region 
and upper trunk, but the action of the latter only will be analyzed 
in detail. 

The exercise may be described as consisting of three parts or 
phases, following each other without any appreciable pause. 1. 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



59 



The first is an ordinary arm bending, varying in degree accord- 
ing to the amount of swing desired. The mechanism of this has 
already been given. 2. Next the legs are raised, preferably with 
straight knees, by a flexion in the hips and lower back. This 
involves the flexors of the hip joint and the abdominal muscles. 
At the same time the arms are straightened, the head is thrown 
back, and the upper spine is extended or at any rate held rigid. 
This lowering of the head and shoulders with straightening of 
the elbows brings the shoulder joint in a position of partial 
flexion, with a partial rotation upward of the scapula. It 
serves to cotmterbalance the weight of the raised legs and lower 
trunk, and to deflect in a backward direction the more or less 
upward momentum acąuired by their sudden elevation. At this 
moment, the trunk is in an approximately horizontal position. 
The muscles which were instrumental in producing the arm bend- 
ing — the pectorals, latissimus, rhomboids and biceps — are all, with 
the exception of the latissimus, in a state of moderate static con- 
traction. The same is true also of the upper and middle trapezius. 
The former, after their initial contraction, which raised the body 
to the bent arm hanging position, have yielded sufficiently to 
gravity and the puli of the latissimus to allow the upper part of 
the body to drop to this position. The latissimus, on the con- 
trary, has contracted with increased intensity and has thereby 
been chiefly instrumental in raising the lower trunk almost to a 
level with the shoulders and head, the sudden drop of this portion 
of the body, acting as a counter-weight, having been the other 
factor. 3. The backward-upward momentum, attained in the 
first two parts of the exercise, is soon overcome by gravity. With 
the recoil, and the muscular efforts made to reenforce it, begins 
the third part of the exercise. This consists of a ąuick, partial 
bending, followed immediately by straightening of the elbow, 
and a simultaneous extension in the hip joint, arching, or at least 
straightening of the lower back (previously flexed) and a forward 
projection of the whole body, now straight and rigid, which is 
equivalent to a forward-upward arm raising. This means ad- 
ditional flexion in the shoulder joint and rotation upward of the 
scapula. The muscles on whose well-timed and orderly response 
the successful execution of this part of the exercise depends are 
the hip and back extensors ; the biceps and other elbow flexors ; 
the upper pectoralis major and the anterior deltoid ; the trapezius 
and serratus magnus. Their contraction must be ąuick and pow- 
erful and must cease promptly when the movement has progressed 
to a point where continued action would check the momentum 
gained. This is particularly true of the biceps, the upper pec- 
toralis major and the anterior deltoid. As soon as the last two 



60 



GYMyASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



cease contracting, the central and posterior portions of the del- 
toid begin. The hip and back extensors remain contracted 
throughout to insure the necessary rigidit}- of the body as a whole. 

The forward momentum gained in this way may be very con- 
siderable, even amoimting to a forward-upward projection of the 
body. In any case, it is the principal force responsible for the 
completion of the flexion in the shoulder joint and the rotation 
upward, with elevation, of the scapula, by which the arms and 
body are brought into Hne. At this point the body is in what 
might be called the "horizontal hanging position" and the start- 
ing of the swing has been accompHshed. 

The swing may be continued, pendulum-fashion, without fur- 
ther muscular effort, until the momentum has been exhausted. 
Or the exercise may be finished by an immediate forward dis- 
mount simpl}^ by letting go with the hands and arching the back 
somewhat : or, by a dismount at the end of the first backward or 
the next forward swing; or other movements may be performed 
at the end of a forward or backward swing. 

The exercise may be started by jumping, from behind the bar, 
to the bent arm hanging position. This serves the double purpose 
of facilitating the arm bending and furnishing additional forward 
momentum. It is of advantage when the muscular strength and 
control of the individual are inadeąuate for an ef¥ective start from 
the hanging position. It is also more suitable when it is desired 
to finish the exercise by an immediate forward dismount, when it 
is called the ''swing jump" or ''short underswing." The mechan- 
ism in this modification is essentially the same as that described 
above. 

27. CircHiig the bar to Front Rest. Return by forward 
circle. Like the "starting of the swing," this exercise may be 
done from the hanging position, or it may be started by jumping, 
usually from behind the bar, to the bent arm hanging position. 
The latter method is the easier of the two, and will be assumed, 
especially as the former has already been described. To simplify 
analysis, the exercise may be considered as composed of four 
parts, as follows : 1. Jumping to the bent arm hanging position. 
This is in all respects like arm bending from the hanging position, 
except that the momentum given by the jump lessens the resist- 
ance to be overcome by the working muscles — latissimus and teres 
major, pectorals, rhomboids and biceps. 2. Lowering the head 
and shoulders and at the same time raising the legs ; the former 
by a straightening of the elbows and a slight forward moyement 
of the arms, equivalent to a momentary partial flexion in the 
shoulder joint and a partial upward rotation. with abduction, of 
the scapula, followed immediately by the opposite movements ; 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



61 






Fig. 20. 

CIRCLING THE BAR TO FRONT REST, 
FOURTH STAGE. 



the latter by a bending 
at the hips, accompanied 
by more or less flexion 
in the lumbar and thor- 
acic portions of the 
spine. Ali this miist be 
done very ąuickly in or- 
der to attain sufficient 
momentum to carry the 
legs past the vertical. It 
is accomplished by the 
sudden contraction . of 
the flexors of the hip 
joint, and the abdominal 
muscles in front; by the 
latissimus and teres 
major, upper erector 
spinae and posterior neck 
muscles behind. The 
latter are, of course, 
aided by gravity. At the 
same time the pectorals, 
rhomboids and biceps, 
active during the first 

part of the exercise, yield momentarily to gravity and to the 
puli of the upper back muscles, contracting (eccentrically) only 
sufficiently to regulate the speed of the drop of the head and 
shoulders. When this has occurred, they all, with the exception 
of the biceps, contract again for a moment to aid the latissimus 
and teres major in bringing the trunk to the vertical position, close 
to the arms. The body is now in the inverted hanging position, 
bent at the hips, the front of the thighs in contact with the bar. 3. 
If properly managed so far, the next stage of the exercise 
should begin immediately, before the momentum gained in the 
second part has been entirely spent. It consists of a quick arm 
bending, associated this time (owing to the inverted position of 
the body) with abduction in the shoulder joint and rotation up- 
ward with some elevation of the scapula. The motor muscles are, 
therefore, the biceps, the deltoid and supraspinatus ; the trapezius 
and serratus magnus. The upper pectoralis major probably also 
helps, at least in the beginning. - These muscles continue to con- 
tract until the body has been lifted high enough to bring the an- 
terior spines of ilium opposite the bar. A partial flexion at the 
hips having been maintained, the legs have now passed the bar 
and are beginning to overbalance the trunk. This marks the be- 



62 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



ginning of 4, the last stąge of the exercise. The body is now 
gradually straightened by contraction of the extensors of the hip 
joint and spine. Following closely, the elbows are also gradually 
straightened and the arms are brought to the sides. This is ac- 
complished by reversing the musc.ular action in the shoulder re- 
gion, the muscles active in the third stage relaxing, while the op- 
posite set — latissimus and teres major, pectorals, rhomboids and 
triceps — are thrown into' action. The trapezius ( central and lower 
portions), however, should remain strongly contracted, to aid the 
rhomboids in keeping the scapula adducted. If these muscular 
efforts are well timed and are made in proper seąuence, the now 
straight and rigid body revolves into a position of 45° inclination 
and is at the same time lifted until the front of the thighs rest on 
the bar and support a part of the weight. If the momentum and 
balance are not skillfully managed — as by straightening the hips 
too soon'or too late, or too suddenly, or by waiting too long be- 
fore beginning to straighten the elbows — there may be many a 
hitch in the proceedings, sometimes resulting in a return to the 
floor in reverse order, i.e. by an involuntary forward circle; or 
else the body, having begun to revolve, gathers too great momen- 
tum; passes the 45° angle and descends to the floor on the side of 
the bar from which the start was made, unless the performer has 
the strength to check it by a tardy, and therefore extreme con- 
traction of the extensors of hip, back, elbow and shoulder, and the 
rotators downward of the scapula. 

The return by a forward circle, already mentioned as liable to 
occur involuntarily, before the finał position on the bar has been 
reached, is started by a partial relaxation of the triceps, latissimus 
and teres major, pectorals and rhomboids. Gravity then causes 
the flexion in the elbow, abduction in the shoulder joint, and ro- 
tation upward of the scapula. As a result, the body is lowered 
until the hip joints are opposite the bar. At the same time, these 
joints are moderately flexed and the back slightly curved (the 
latter is not neceśsary, but is difficult to avoid). This is also 
caused by gravity, the hip and back extensors yielding sufficiently 
to allow it. If the flexion is not too great at first, the weight of 
the trunk now over-balances that of the legs and the body begins 
to revolve. Too great a momentum is guarded against by a fur- 
ther flexion at the hips, so that the front of the thighs remains 
in contact with the bar. The overturning of the trunk then takes 
place as foUows : First, the trunk descends, head foremost, until 
the arms are straight; the biceps, deltoid, serratus and trapezius 
are actively resisting, but yielding to gravity sufliciently to check 
too sudden a drop. Next, the hips are lowered, with continued 
flexion in order to keep the legs close to the bar, until the toes 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



63 




are opposite the latter. This 
movement involves flexion in 
the shoiilder joint (moving 
the arms forward-upward) 
and rotation upward of the 
scapula. Gravity is the motor 
force, and the active muscles 
are those which resist the 
movement, viz. the extensors 
of the shoulder joint — pec- 
toraHs major, latissimus and 
teres major — and the rotators 
downward of the scapula — 
pectorahs minor and rhom- 
boids. While these contract 
"eccentrically" to control the 
speed of the movement, the 
abdominal muscles and hip 
joint flexors contract ''con- 
centrically" until the flexion 
at the hips and in the lower 
back is complete, thereby in- 
suring the proximity of the 
legs to the bar throughout the 
♦descent and overturning of 
the trunk. Finally, when the 
arms are straight and in line 

with the now vertical trunk, the legs are lowered by allowing the 
abdominal muscles and hip joint flexors to yield to gravity. This 
continues until the hip joints are in complete extension and the 
back is straight, when the body is in the ordinary hanging position. 

Yariations in the manner of performing the forward circle are 
numerous. The principal modification of the type described is 
the one in which the hips are straightened first, the elbows last. 
This often occurs involuntarily, because of lack of strength and 
coórdination on the part of the performer, but is also used by 
skillful gymnasts when other movements are to follow which re- 
ąuire considerable swing or momentum. The mechanism of this 
type of Forward circle is practically the same as that described, 
except that the order of the different parts is changed. Also, less 
effort is called for on the part of the abdominal muscles, and 
more on the part of the hip and back extensors, as well as on 
the shoulder joint extensors, the elbow and finger flexors and 
the rotators downward of the scapula in order to manage the 
much greater momentum. 



Fig. 21. 

CiRCLiNG Bar to Front Rest, Third 
Stage: or, Forward Circle from 
Front Rest, Second Stage. 



64 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



28. The hwcrted hanging position, and puU-iip over bar to 
Back Rest. In the inverted hanging position the body is suspended 
vertically on the arms, head down. The mechanisni of the exer- 
cise varies somewhat with the apparatus used, and also according 
to minor details of definition. Thus, when done between the 
parallel bars, ropes ot rings the balance element is most pro- 
nounced and involves eąual, or at any rate ąuickly alternating, 
action of the anterior and posterior shoulder, trunk and hip joint 
muscles. When the horizontal bar or similar apparatus is used, 
the front of the thighs may be in contact with the bar, the 
position therefore demanding a more or less generał muscular 
action, but on the whole involving the anterior muscles slightly 
more than the posterior. This position is usually of a transitory 
character, occurring as a part of another exercise, e.g. circling the 
bar. Its main features have already been indicated. Or, the feet 
may be passed through between the hands, the legs then straight- 
ened, and the back slightly arched. The balance is then made 
easier through the support afforded by contact of the back of the 
thighs with the bar. The last mentioned type will be assumed. 

In taking the position the same muscular and joint action occurs 
as was described under "circling the bar," parts 1 and 2. Just 
before the legs reach the vertical the knees and hips are flexed 
sharply, to allow the feet to pass under the bar, between the hands. 
This flexion is produced by gravity, unless begun some time be- 
fore the legs reach the vertical, when the hip joint flexors and 
abdominal muscles would be called into action. With this flexion 
is associated, as usual, marked curving of the whole back, the 
whole movement being fairly described by the term "curling up." 

Next,the hip, knee and back extensors contract,producing com- 
plete straightening at the hips and knees, and a moderate arching 
of the back. This, if carefully done, brings the back of the thigh 
in contact with the bar. When the action of the back extensors 
is excessive, too great arching of the lower back is produced. 

This, alone or combined with premature straightening of the 
knees, is liable to displace too much weight in the direction 
toward which the face is turned, and lead to an involuntary 
backward circle to the floor. To guard against this, or at any 
rate to minimize the arching of the lower back, the abdominal 
muscles have to maintain a moderate static contraction. 

As regards the shoulder region, grayity is keeping the shoulder 
joint adducted or extended, and even slightly hyper-extended. 
The last is also due, in part at least, to the contraction of the 
latissimus and teres major, associated with the back extensors 
(and grayity) in maintaining the arched position. The scapula 
is also kept rotated downward, adducted and depressed by gravity. 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



65 




The position being de- 
cidedly "active," liowever, the 
weight is borne by the flexors 
and abductors of the shoulder 
joint — upper pectoraHs major, 
deltoid and supraspinatus ; the 
rotators upward of the scapu- 
la — middle trapezius and ser- 
ratus ; and the elevators of the 
scapula — upper trapezius, le- 
vator anguH scapulse, and the 
rhomboids. Ali these are in a 
State of moderate tonie con- 
traction, while the lower 
trapezius, lower pectoralis 
major and the pectoraHs mi- 
nor are relaxed. 

When it is desired to puli 
the body up over the bar to 
the sitting position (or to the 
more active position of Back 
Rest), the above named mus- 
cles contract more powerfully. 
They are joined by the biceps 
and brachialis anticus, while 
the latissimus and teres major 

relax more or less. This effort continues until the body has been 
raised sufficiently to bring the sacrum opposite the bar, when the 
weight of the legs- overbalances that of the trunk (providing 
the extension in the hip joint and the arching of the back 
have been maintained). When this point has been passed, 
further contraction of these muscles must cease and muscular 
action of the opposite character begin, viz. contraction of the ab- 
dominal muscles and hip joint flexors ; of the latissimus, teres 
major and triceps ; and of the lower pectoralis major. The lower 
and middle trapezius, as well as the rhomboids, also contract, the 
latter with the double purpose of assisting the trapezius in keep- 
ing the scapula adducted and aiding the pectoralis minor in ro- 
tating it downward. As a result of these muscular efforts, the 
trunk, after passing the horizontal, is raised to the vertical po- 
sition, or to a position with a backward inclination of about 45^, 
supported on the straight arms and the back of the thighs. 

If the contractions of the muscles active during the "pull-up'* 
do not cease at the right moment, the overbalance of the legs be- 
comes too great, and the body is precipitated forward over the 



Fig. 22. 

IXVERTED HANGING POSITION. 



66 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



bar. If the finał muscular efforts begin too soon, the body is lia- 
ble to be pushed back, beyond the point of balance, and an in- 
yoluntary backward circle to the floor is the result. 

At all times during the last two stages of the movement, par- 
ticular attention must be given to the position of the head. The 
tendency to bend it forward is very strong on account of the 
greater ease in balancing and guiding the movement when the 
performer is able to look up. Keeping the head forward also re- 
duces the weight leverage of the trunk appreciably at the critical 
moment. After the point of balance has been passed, the forward 
position of the head is largely due to the close association of the 
anterior neck muscles with the pectoral and abdominal muscles 
which is particularly marked whenever the trunk is leaning back 
unsupported. For all these reasons it does not "come natural" 
to keep the head back. In fact, the necessary conscious effort to 
do so increases the difficulty of the exercise considerably. 

29. Upstart to Front Rest ( the ''Kip''). This is one of the con- 
ventional modes of mounting the high bar. It is an exercise of 
no smali difficulty, in spite of its apparent simplicity (when well 
donej. This, and the fact that it is capable of being performed 
with a certain grace or style, make it a very popular exercise with 
young men, at once the never ending attraction and the despair of 
the uninitiated. Briefly considered, it may be said to consist of 
the following parts : 

1. Starting the swing, as previously described. 2. On the 
next forward swing, the chest is forcibly expanded and the 
back arched as the body passes the vertical. This position is held, 
with absolute rigidity, until the forward swing is almost com- 
pleted. The mechanism of this is practically identi*cal with that 
of the ''active" hanging position, aiready described. 3. A very 
smali fraction of time before the forward swing is completed, the 
legs are ąuickly raised by a fiexion in the hip joints. The less 
the spine is flexed, the better. 4. The legs are immediately 
brought down and back by a forcible extension in the hip joints 
and spine, while the arms, kept straight and rigid, are simulta- 
neously pressed down to the sides, in other words, extension in 
the shoulder joint, rotation downward, depression and adduction 
of the scapula take place. The muscles concerned are the hip 
extensors and erector spinse; the latissimus and teres major; the 
pectoraHs major; the pectoralis minor and rhomboids; the lower 
trapezius ; the triceps. It is on the proper timing, ąuickness and 
vigor of this complex muscular effort in relation to the recoil from 
the forward swing that the success of the exercise depends. If it 
is made a moment too soon or too late, if the extension at the hip 
is not complete, if the arching of the back is excessive, if the ex- 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 67 



tension of the shoulder joint (the bearing down with the arms) is 
not strong enough, or if the elbows are allowed to bend before the 
body is vertical and its center of gravity above the level of the 
bar, the exercise becomes a futile, spasmodic, nondescript effort, 
the performer either striking the under side of the bar with his 
chest or abdomen or else swinging hopelessly backward and 
downward, instead of rising smoothly to the Front Rest position. 

C. EXERCTSES INVOLVING SUPPORT ON THE ARMS. 

30. Front Rest ( Balance Weighing Position). This has already 
been mentioned and its mechanism indicated in connection with 
**Circhng the bar" and ''Upstart to Front Rest." It may also be 
reached by a direct mount on any apparatus Iow enough to allow 
it; e.g. the Iow horizontal bar or boom, the horse or the buck. 
Its definition may be briefly stated thus : body shghtly arched, 
facing at right angle to the apparatus, inchned forward about 
45 degrees, weight supported on the hands and upper part of the 
thighs. It is used as a start- 
ing position for many exer- 
cises on the horizontal bar and 
horse, and in modified forms, 
without support on the thighs 
(variations of the so-called 
"Free" Front Rest), consti- 
•tutes the principal transitory 
position of some vaults and 
dismounts on the horse, buck, 
Iow horizontal and parallel 
bars, 

Although the body is in a 
position similar to the funda- 
mental standing position, and 
the muscles responsible for 
the maintenance of the latter 
are here even more active, 
the relation of the muscular 
action to gravity is different. 
In the fundamental standing fig. 23. front rest. 

position gravity keeps the el- 

bow and shoulder joints in extension and the scapula ro- 
tated downward. In 'Tront Rest," with a large part of the 
weight supported on the arms, gravity tends to cause flexion in 
the elbow, abduction in the shoulder joint and rotation upward, 
with abduction and elevation of the scapula. Gravity also helps 
to produce flexion at the hip and rounding of the back. The last 




68 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



two features are apt to be pronounced when sudden and excessive 
efforts are made to regain the eąuilibrium, which at best is none 
too stable. 

The active muscles are those which resist gravity, viz. the 
triceps; the adductors of the shoulder joint — latissimus and teres 
major, pectoraHs major (lower portion) ; the rotators down- 
ward of scapula — pectoralis minor and rhomboids ; the adductors 
and depressors of the scapula^ — trapezius (rhomboids, latissimus, 
pectoraHs minor, already enumerated in other capacities) ; the 
extensors of the hip joint and back. 

While the total amount of work performed by these muscles is 
considerable, the feature of particular interest in ''Ftont Rest" is 
the difficulty it offers in maintaining good posturę of the upper 
part of the body. This difficulty is related in the first place to the 
unstable eąjuilibrium, in the second place to the large share of 
the work devolving on the pectorals in supporting the weight. 

As regards the balance, it will readily be seen that the higher 
the body is raised above the bar and the greater its inclination, 
the more insecure is the position. For this reason the unskilled 
performer is reluctant to push up high enough to straighten the 
arms and to bring the upper part of the thighs in contact with 
the bar. Or, if he does so, he is apt to bend at the hips and at the 
same time to curve the back. This gives him a greater sense of 
security, because there is then less projection of weight on each 
side of the bar, with correspondingly lessened danger of acąuir- 
ing too great momentum forward in attempts to find the point of 
balance. 

Closely associated with this reluctance or inability to straighten 
the back for fear of becoming overbalanced is the excessive 
action of the pectorals and abdominal muscles. Indeed, it is the 
powerful action of the former which is chiefly responsible for the 
rounding of the upper back and the marked mal-position of the 
scapula, so common in ftiis exercise; while the latter, in conjunc- 
tion with the hip joint flexors (and gravity), cause the curving of 
the lower back and the bend at the hips. Attention has several 
times been called to the close functional association of all the 
anterior muscle groups, from the anterior neck muscles to the 
hip joint flexors. Whenever one set is very active one or all of 
the others are apt to be brought into play. This is especially 
true when the body is suspended or supported on the arms, the 
legs then being free to be moved in a way to balance displace- 
ments of weight in the upper part of the body. Illustrations of 
this occurred in the analysis of such exercises as "Arm bending 
from the hanging position," "Circling the bar," "Inverted hang- 
ing position." In "Front Rest" the tendency of the untrained 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 69 



individual is to try to escape the difficulties of balance involved 
in resting heavily on the thighs by supporting the greater part 
of the weight on the arms. This throws the largest share of the 
work on the pectorals. Their powerful contraction, aided by the 
associated action of the abdominal muscles, leads to a forward 
movement of the point of the shoulder and a rounding of the 
upper back. This is equivalent to a sHght flexion in the shoulder 
joint and a marked displacement of the scapula by which this 
bone is not only abducted (moved away from the spine), but 
also tilted so that its lower angle projects sharply. The pecuHar 
scapular displacement is due, primarily, to the excessive, un- 
balanced action of the pectoralis minor in its effort to prevent 
gravity from elevating and rotating the bone upward. While 
the projection forward of the point of the shoulder is due, largely, 
to this displacement of the shoulder girdle, it is made more pro- 
nounced 1 \v a simultaneous depression of the chest. The latter 
is bound to occur whenever the two large pectorals, acting as 
one muscle running over the convex surface of the upper chest, 
contract complctely. They will then tend to get into a straight 
line. If the displacement of the shoulder girdle is not sufficient 
to allow this — as in the present case, the arms being fixed — the 
trunk will be forced backward. This can only mean curving of 
the thoracic spine and that, in turn, is always associated with de- 
pression and inversion of the ribs. 

The prevention of this displacement of the shoulder girdle and 
the preservation of erect posturę of the upper trunk devolves 
here, as always, on the scapular adductors and posterior de- 
pressors, aided by the longitudinal back muscles and hip joint 
extensors. Owing to the unusual difficulties encountered, as 
represented by the instability of the position, and the amount 
of weight to be supported on the arms with the conseąuent 
powerful action of the pectorals working with good leverage, 
the successful performance of this exercise demands in the 
first place, fairly strong, well-developed upper back muscles. 
I This is not infreąuently lacking in those who attempt it. Secondly, 
the performer must have good control of the scapular muscles, 
as well as a fairly well trained muscular sense generally, so that 
he is not inhibited too much by the difficulties of maintaining his 
eąuilibrium. 

The practical application of alł this to gymnastic teaching is 
to refrain from giving such an exercise to individuals who for 
one reason ,or another — youth, sex, untrained condition — have 
not the reąuisite strength and control to do it acceptably after a 
few attempts. Such individuals should receive preparatory train- 
ing by practice of the various shoulder blade movements and sim- 



70 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



ple suspension exercises already described, supplemented by such 
exercises as the ''Prone falling position" and "Free Front Rest" 
(to be described). 

When properly taken, however, the 'Tront Rest" position, by 
putting the muscles responsible for erect carriage of the upper 
trunk — the scapular depressors and adductors, the upper back and 
posterior neck muscles — to a most severe test, gives those mus- 
cles excellent training both as regards strength and control. It 
also cultivates in a high degree generał muscular sense and co- 
ordination, the efforts to maintain the eąuilibrium involving more 
or less all the principal muscles in the body. 

31. ''Free" Front Rest is an exercise which may be used as a 
■preparation for certain vaults and for "Front Rest," being some- 
what similar to the latter in its mechanism. The term is really 
a misnomer, as the exercise is a movement rather than a position. 
For although the effort should be to hołd it as long as possible, 
few are able to do so for more than a second, while the majority 
descend abruptly before having ascended even half way to the 
desired level. It may be described as a swinging up of the body 
toward the horizontal position, weight supported entirely on the 
arms. It is done on the horse, buck, Iow horizontal bar or boom, 
usually started by springing from the floor; or on the parallel 
bars preceded by a forward swing. In either case sufficient mo- 
mentum is one of the necessary prereąuisites for successful per- 
formance. Sufficient forward displacement of the weight is an- 
other. Strength is not as essential as might be supposed, pro- 
vided fuli advantage is taken of the other two' factors. 

The body rises toward the horizontal position by a partial 
flexion in the shoulder joint and a partial rotation upward with 
some abduction of the scapula. The flexion in the shoulder joint 
is minimized by a compensatory hyper-extension at the wrist in- 
volved in the projection of the head and upper trunk forward over 
the apparatus. By this means the arms are inclined forward so 
as to form a more acute angle with the trunk than would other- 
wise be the case, and the weight of the body as a whole is more 
evenly distributed in front and behind the support (the hands). 
The head and upper trunk thus act as a counterweight to the 
legś, and this, together with the momentum from the spring, 
makes possible the elevation of the body by the comparatively 
smali motor muscles, working under adverse mechanical condi- 
tions. The muscles in ąuestion are the flexors of the shoulder 
joint— upper pectoralis major, anterioT deltoid, biceps and coraco- 
brachialis ; the rotators upward of the scapula — trapezius and 
serratus magnus (see below) ; and the extensors of the spine 
and hip. 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



71 



The muscular mechanism is, however, not as simple as might be 
supposed from the above enumeration of the motor muscles, In 
the first place the triceps has to maintain a powerful contraction 
throughout to keep the elbow from bending too much under the 
weight. Similarly the lower pectoraHs major, as well as the long 
head of triceps, must be kept strongly active to prevent gravity 
from producing abduction in the shoulder joint. This is especially 
true during the first part of the movement when the body is nearer 
the vertical than the horizontal position. Secondly, during the 
early stage of the movem.ent the action of the trapezius and ser- 
ratus should be confined to the lower portions of these muscles 
in the efifort to resist the tendency of gravity to produce scapular 
elevation. When the horizontal piane is approached, however, 
these muscles are brought into fuli action, not so much to pro- 
duce rotation upward of the scapula, although that inevitably 
occurs more than is desirable, but to aid in the proper fixation of 
the shoulder girdle. 

At this point the whole body weight may be said to be sus- 
pended on the pectorals, major and minor, and the serratus on 
each side. These contract w^ith utmost vigor \o prevent the 
trunk from sinking down between the arms. This would lead to 
adduction and rotation downward of the scapula and to a bodily 
backward displacement of this bone. In 'their violent efforts to 
prevent this, the pectorals and serratus are apt to bring about the 
opposite condition, namely, extreme scapular abduction. That 
necessitates contraction of the scapular adductors, chiefly the 
trapezius and rhomboids, although the latissimus and levator an- 
guli scapulse are probably also active. Only in this way is the 
proper fixation of the shoulder girdle insured. The net results, 
under the most favorable conditions, of this interplay of the 
scapular muscles — abductors against adductors, elevators against 
depressors, rotators upward against rotators downward — plus 
the action of gravity, is a moderate rotation upward with some 
abduction and elevation of the scapula, while the upper back is 
kept straight and the chest moderately expanded by the upper 
prolongations of the erector spinse and the deep back muscles. 

When the exercise is first attempted there is usually only a 
very slight rise and even less incline of the body. The mechanism 
is then much like that of ''Front rest," but the muscular work is 
easier because of the momentary character of the effort and the 
reduction in resistance represented by the momentum from the 
spring. 

32. Face vault (Front vault). This is one of the horizontal 
vaults, in which the front of the body is toward the apparatus at 
the moment of passing it. It is a modificatipn of "Free Front 



72 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



Rest" involving a 90-degree turn of the body at the moment of 
the spring, and a lateral movement of the legs and lower trunk, 
during the ascent as well as the descent, by means of which the 
landing is made on the other side of the apparatus. The mechan- 
ism is practically the same as that of "Free Front Rest," the prin- 
cipal differences being the sHght excess of action of the back 
muscles on the side toward which the vault is made (e.g. the left), 
a transfer of the weight to the arm of the opposite side (right) 
and abduction combined with extension in the shoulder joint of 
that side during the last part of the movement. The difficulty 
here, as in "Free Front Rest," is to get enough momentum in the 
take-off, and to have enough weight in front of the hands during 
the progress of the movement to counterbalance the weight of 
the legs and lower trunk, thereby reducing the work of the motor 
muscles. Partial failure in these respects shows itself by too 
large an angle between the arms and the body, and in landing a 
varying distance behind the hand which remains on the apparatus. 
Another fault, peculiar to this exercise, is the tardy transfer of 
the weight to the arm on the side opposite that toward which the 
vault is made (right arm if the vault is to left), accompanied by 
too long retention of the hołd of the other hand (left in this case) 
on the apparatus. This leads to an excessive turn of the body in 
the same direction as the ińitial turn (right in this case) and a 
poor landing. 

The placing of the hands is of some importance. If the 
vault is made on the horse or buck, to the left, one hand on 
each side of the right end of the apparatus gives the best sup- 
port; if the Iow horizontal bar is used the combined grasp is the 
most satisfactory. Finally, the tendency here, as in crude at- 
tempts at 'Tree Front Rest," is to flex the knees, hips and back— 
curling up; this being the readiest and therefore the instinctive 
way of reducing the weight leverage. 

33. Side vault (Flank vault) is another of the horizontal vaults. 
Here the side of the body is toward the apparatus at the moment 
of passing. If the vault is to the left, the weight is transferred 
to the right arm immediately after the take-off, the left arm being 
used only momentarily to deflect to the right a part of the for- 
ward momentum of the upper trunk gained in the spring from 
the floor. The success of the vault depends, as in the "Face 
vault," on sufficient momentum and proper distribution of the 
weight rather than on great strength. The main features of the 
mechanism are as f ollows : The legs are raised to the left by a 
slight bend at the waist and by abduction in the right shoulder 
joint with rotation upward, abduction and slight elevation of the 
right scapula. The displacement of the body to the right in the 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



73 



effort to distribute the weight more evenly over the right hand 
usually causes a slight bending of the right elbow, followed either 
immediately or in the last part of the vault by straightening of this 
joint. The resulting inchnation of the arm to the right reduces 
somewhat the extent of the above mentioned shoulder joint and 
scapular moyements. The principal muscles active so far are the 
abdominal and lower back muscles of the left side; the left and 
right pectoraHs major and minor, rhomboids and triceps for a mo- 
ment only ; then the right deltoid and supraspinatus, trapezius and 
serratus. The right triceps yields a Httle as the legs are ascending 
and the weight is being shifted to the right arm. 

When the legs have reached the highest point and the body 
as a whole is in an approximately horizontal position directly 
over the apparatus, the bend to the left in the waist and the slight 
flexion of the hip joints that may have occurred during the 
ascent are suddenly eliminated and the whole back arched by 
the yigorous contraction of the longitudinal back muscles and the 
hip joint extensors. The deltoid and supraspinatus, trapezius and 
serratus on the right side, active during the ascent, are at this 
moment making their most yigorous effort, the initial momentum 
being almost spent and what remains being utilized to carry the 
body past the apparatus. 

The descent of the legs and the return of the body to the ver- 
tical are accomplished partly by gravity, partly by a quick, yig- 
orous contraction of the right triceps, latissimus, teres major, 
pectorals, rhomboids and lower trapezius, resulting in a straight- 
ening of the elbow, preyiously slightly bent, adduction with hyper- 
extension of the arm and rotation downward with depression of 
the scapula. The whole muscular effort is in the naturę of a 
spring from the right arm, giying an upward momentum to the 
upper part of the body and also displacing it to the left suffi- 
ciently to bring the center of grayity oyer the feet at the moment 
of landing. 

34. Back vault (Rear vault). This is the last of the three 
horizontal yaults. The back is toward the apparatus at the mo- 
ment of passing it. The approach, placing of the hands and spring 
from the floor are exactly like those of the "Side yault." But 
as the legs are raised, say to the left, the trunk remains more 
nearly yertical, there is a more marked bend to the left at the 
waist, followed yery soon by a 90-degree turn of the whole body 
to the left, a straightening at the waist and a sharp bend at the 
hips. As in the "Side yault" the weight is put on the right arm 
soon after the feet haye left the floor, then, just as the legs are 
passing the apparatus, the left hand is brought behind the back 



74 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



and replaces the right hand in supporting the weight during the 
descent. 

The anatomical mechanism of the various phases of the vault 
includes : (1) Contraction of the abdominal and lower back muscles 
of the left side, aided by the abductors of the left and adductors 
of the right hip joint. (2) The turn of the body begins as a twist- 
ing of the hips to left, produced by the obHąue abdominal and 
back muscles. The impulse for the turn of the shoulders is given 
by the left hand as it releases its hołd on the apparatus soon after 
the feet have left the floor. It involves rotation outward in the 
right shoulder joint (see below). (3) Flexion at the hips and in 
the lower back, by the hip joint flexors and abdominal muscles. 
(4) Rotation outward and hyper-extension in the right shoulder 
joint, and resistance to gravity, tending to produce abduction in' 
this joint, elevation and rotation upward of the scapula and 
flexion in the right elbow. This reąuires contraction of the 
latissimus and teres major; lower pectoralis major, posterior del- 
toid, infraspinatus and teres minor; pectoralis minor and rhom- 
boids ; lower trapezius and the triceps, all on the right side. The 
turn of the shoulders also necessitates contraction of the obliąue 
abdominal and back muscles of a character reverse to that occur- 
ring when the hips are turned at the beginning of the ascent. 

During the descent the hips and lower back are straightened, 
chiefly by gravity, but, as the movement is ąuick, the hip and 
back extensors also assist by a momentary contraction. The 
weight having been transferred to the left arm, gravity and what is 
left of the initial momentum now produce abduction combined 
with flexion and slight rotation inward in the left shoulder 
joint, rotation upward with tendency to elevation and abduction 
of the left scapula. The left elbow also is apt to bend. The 
active muscles are those which resist these moyements or ten- 
dencies, viz. the left latissimus and teres major, lower pectoralis 
major; pectoralis minor and rhomboids; lower and middle 
trapezius; and triceps. 

35. The Hand stand is reached by a movement the first part 
of which is like "Free Front Rest" as far as the shoulder region 
is concerned. But in raising the legs and inverting the body 
to the "Hand stand" there is at first a considerable bend at 
the hips and more flexion in the elbows than occurs in "Free 
Front Rest." 

When the trunk has passed the horizontal its further eleva- 
tion and finał inversion involve continued flexion with rotation 
outward and abduction in the shoulder joint and rotation up- 
ward of the scapula, until the limits of these movements are 
approached. This is equivalent to a forward-upward arm 



• 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 75 

raising and is accomplished by the contraction of the deltoid 
and supraspinatus, trapezius and serratus, infraspinatus and 
teres minor, aided, of course, by the momentum developed in 
the spring from the floor. The rhomboids and levator anguli 
scapulae also become active, aiding the upper trapezius in re- 
sisting the tendency of grąvity to depress the scapula as the 
yertical, inverted position of the trunk is approached. Just 
before this is reached the hips, lower back and elbows are 
straightened by the forcible contraction of their respective 
extensor muscles. 

The finał position is usually rather arched, demanding 
static contraction of the abdominal and pectoral muscles, 
while the shoulder joint and scapula are kept in their respec- 
tive positions by continued complete contraction of the mus- 
cles which brought them there (see above). The balance is 
maintained by constant smali adjustments involving interplay 
between the anterior and posterior muscles, supplemented by 
alternate quick yieldings and recoveries on the part of the 
triceps. 

The exercise calls for and develops a high degree of co- 
ordination, a keen sense of eąuilibrium and considerable 
strength. If the tendency to excessive arching in the lower 
back is resisted, its influence on posturę is on the whole 
favorable. 

36. The yertical vaults. This group comprises the "Sąuat'' 
and ''Straddle" vaults and their combination, the ''half Sąuat 
half Straddle" vault ("wolf vault) ; the ''Rear Sąuat" and 
"Rear Straddle" vaults; the "Knee" vault and ''Front" vault 
("Sheep" vault) ; the "Cross-legged" vault; and the "J^mp" 
vault ("Thief" vault). As far as the shoulder region is con- 
cerned, the mechanism is very nearly the same in all of them, 
with the exception of the ''J^^P" vault. 

The Front vault may serve as illustration, being the simplest 
in its mechanism, although by no means easy of execution. It is 
preceded by a run, culminating in a short, ąuick jump and then 
a take-off or spring from both feet. The arms are drawn back 
on the jump, then ąuickly swung forward. The hands are placed 
on the apparatus an instant after the spring has been made. 

At this moment the shoulder joint is in a position of partia! 
flexion, the scapula somewhat abducted, elevated and rotated 
upward. As the arms receive the weight the elbows bend a 
little ; then follow immediately, and practically simultaneously, 
extension in the elbow and shoulder joints, rotation downward, 
adduction and depression of the scapula, all together constituting 
a spring from the hands. It results from the sudden contraction 



76 GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY ^ 

of the triceps, pectorals, rhomboids, latissimus and teres major. 
It serves to increase the momentum gained by the spring from 
the feet and to deflect it in a morę upward direction. On the 
ąuickness and vigor of this muscular effort depends also, 
primarily, the erect, vertical position of the body during the 
progress of the vault. This position, however, cannot be at- 
tained perfectly, nor can the apparatus be cleared by the feet 
successfully, without a supplementary forcible contraction of all 
the longitudinal back muscles and the hip joint extensors, oc- 
curring just as the ascent is being completed. This insures a 
good fundamental position of the whole body as the apparatus is 
cleared, chest leading, feet last. The only discrepancies are a 




Fig. 24. 

Prone Falling Position (Front Leaning Rest). 



rather excessive hyperextension in the lumbar spine and more or 
less bend at the knees, both faults being almost impossible to 
eliminate. 

In the Jump vault the spring is from one foot, just as in the 
ordinary straight jump. The feet then pass the apparatus first, 
the body is slightly inclined backward, and the hands touch only 
after the descent has begun. The spring from the hands in this 
case involves hyperextension in the shoulder joint, almost always 
associated with elevation and tilting forward of the scapula on 
its median horizontal axis. The muscular effort is similar to that 
occurring in the "Front vault," with the action of the pectoraHs 
minor, latissimus and teres major predominating. On account 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 77 



of the marked displacement of the scapula and the forward po- 
sition of the head so common in this vault, it has a rather un- 
favorable tendency as regards posturę in the upper part of the 
body. 

37. Pr one falling position (Front leaning Rest). The body 
weight is here supported in part on the hands, in part on the 
feet (toes). When the hands are on a considerably higher level 
than the feet, with the body incHned 45°, the muscular mechanism 
in the upper part of the body is similar to that of ''Front Rest." 
When the hands and feet are on the same level — as the floor or 
parallel bars, with the body nearly horizontal — the difference is 
greater; not so much as regards the particular muscles employed 
— for they are practically the same — but more in regard to the 
róle gravity plays in inducing this muscular interplay, acting, as 
it does, almost perpendicularly to the whole length axis of the. 
body. The balance element, so prominent and complicating a 
factor in ''Front Rest," is whoUy absent in the "Prone falling po- 
sition." 

It will be assumed that the position is taken on the floor, with 
the hands directly under the shoulders — or a few inches nearer 
the feet — and the fingers turned diagonally toward each other. 
The shoulder joint is then in a state of partial flexion and rota- 
tion inward, gravity tending to produce abduction and extension 
in this joint and flexion in the elbow. Gravity also tends to 
adduct the scapula and to displace it bodily in a direction away 
from the back. At the same time the abdomen and hips tend to 
"sag" and the knees to bend. This means hyperextension in the 
lower back accompanied by increased flexion in the upper thoracic 
spine, diminished flexion in the shoulder joint, elevation and ro- 
tation upward of the scapula added to the displacement of this 
bone already mentioned. The muscles directly concerned in re- 
sisting these tendencies are the triceps ; the abdominal muscles ; 
the anterior adductor and the flexors of the shoulder joint — the 
pectoralis major, anterior deltoid, coraco-brachialis and short 
head of biceps ; the abductors, rotators downward and depressors 
of the scapula — pectoralis minor and rhomboids, serratus magnus 
and lower trapezius. 

The difficulties and common faults of the position, with the 
muscular action reąuired in overcoming them, may be grouped 
under two heads : (1) those due to insufficient muscular resist- 
ance to gravity; (2) those associated with excessive muscular 
efiforts to resist gravity. 

(1) In the first category belongs what might be called the 
"relaxed" position, in which the weight is simply passively sus- 
pended on the muscles. Gravity then has free play and the ex- 



78 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



tremę sagging of the lower trunk and hips with rounding of the 
upper back and mal-position of the scapula are the results. The 
proper contraction with moderate shortening of the muscles enu- 
merated aboye corrects this. 

(2) The other type of faulty position occurs as the result of 
excessive, unbalanced contraction of the abdominal muscles 
(usually with associated action of the hip joint flexors), the pec- 
torals and the serratus magnus. This leads to a rounding of the 
whole back, accompanied by flexion at the hips. Or, if the ab- 
dominal muscles are managed properly, so that the lower back 
and hips are kept straight, the pectorals and serratus may still 
contract excessively, causing an extreme forward displacement 
of the shoulder girdle, depression of the chest and rounding of 
upper back. To insure a straight, flat upper back with proper 




Fig. 25 

Arm Bending from Prone Falling Position. 



scapular fixation the action of the pectorals and serratus must 
be balanced by contraction of the lower and middle trapezius, 
the rhomboids and the upper prolongations of the erector spinse. 

In Arm bending from this position, with the elbows moving 
well sideways, the triceps, pectorals and anterior deltoid are 
allowed to yield to gravity, while the scapular adductors and the 
upper back muscles should remain strongly contracted. In this 
way the movement may be done without disturbing the position 
of the chest, back and shoulder blades (compare arm bending 
from "Cross Rest"). 

38. Cross Rest on the parallel bars. The body is in the fun- 
damental position, vertical, supported entirely on the straight 
arms, one hand on each bar. Gravity tends to flex the elbow, 
abduct and hyperextend the shoulder joint, elevate the scapula 
and rotate it upward. The muscles maintaining the position are 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



79 



therefore the triceps; the (flexors and) adductors of the shoulder 
joint — the pectoralis major (anterior deltoid), latissimus and 
teres major; the depressors and rotators downward of the scapula 
— pectoralis minor, rhomboids and (lower) trapezius. 

The proper posturę in the upper part of the body is, as usual, 
dependent on the vigorous contraction of the adductors and de- 
pressors of the scapula; rhomboids, trapezius and latissimus. 
While the amount of work demanded of these muscles is con- 
siderable, their action is comparatively simple, being more in 
line with, and therefore less opposed to, that of the pectorals than 
is the case in ''Front Rest" and the ''Prone falling position." 
There is no difficult balance problem to complicate matters. The 
lower back and hips are kept straight and rigid by moderate con- 
traction of both anterior and posterior muscles of the lower trunk 
and hip region. 

Walking forward or backward on the hands from this position 
involves the above mentioned muscular action on one side at a 
.time. Because of the excessive amount of weight supported mo- 
mentarily on one arm, the 
working muscles are rarely 
equal to their task. This leads 
in the majority of cases to 
marked disturbance of the 
posturę of the chest, upper 
back and scapula. It is an- 
other case of excessive peC- 
t o r a 1 action induced by 
grayity, and of the scapular 
depressors and adductors 
working against too great 
odds and therefore unable to 
cope with the situation. For 
this reason the exercise is an 
undesirable one and should 
under no circumstances be 
given to any but strong and 
well-trained individuals. 

39. Ann bending from 
Cross Rest. (The ''dip" and 
push-up.) The muscles active 
in maintaining the fundamen- 
tal position in ''Cross Rest" 
yield to gravity. The re- 

sulting movement consists fig 26 

of flexion in the elbow, cross rest. 



1 



I I 




80 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



hyperextension combined with abduction in the shoulder* joint, 
elevation with slight abduction and rotation upward of the 
scapula, and finally a tilting forward of this bone on its 
transverse axis in such a manner that its lower angle is moved 
backward and upward, away from the posterior surface of the 
thorax. This pecuHar displacement is associated with a for- 
ward position of the point of the shoulder, rounding of the 
upper back and depression of the chest. The whole mal-posi- 
tion is due to some extent to the powerful action of the pec- 
torals in their efforts to resist the scapular elevation produced 
by gravity. A similar displacement is apt to occur in any exer- 
cise involving support of a large part of the weight on the arms, 
such as "Front Rest," "Prone falling position," "Cross Rest." 
But in all these it may be prevented and the scapula kept in 
proper apposition to the back by a sufficiently vigorous contrac- 
tion of the scapular adductors and posterior depressors, In this 
exercise — the "dip" — the abnormal position of the shoulder 
girdle and upper trunk is not only of the most pronounced 
character, but cannot be pre- 
vented, no matter how strong 
or well trained the individual. 
The explanation is simple 
enough. When the elbow 
bends the humerus moves al- 
most directly backward, i.e. 
there occurs at first hyper- 
extension in the shoulder 
joint. The amount of this 
permitted in the joint is very 
smali, however (from 5° to 
10°). When this is checked 
by the complete stretching of 
the anterior part of the cap- 
sular ligament of the shoulder 
joint, the two bones — humerus 
and scapula — are yirtually 
one. Grayity, acting with 
good leverage through the 
humerus, then pries the 
scapula into the abnormal 
position described a b o v e . 
The only structures that 
can hołd the bone down 

are the (serratus) trapezius arm bending from cross rest. 




UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



81 



and rhomboid muscles, the fasciae and the skin. These stretch as 
far as possible; then, if the movement proceeds further, the 
upper trunk must follow the humerus in its backward-upward 
sweep. This is what actually happens and accounts for the ex- 
treme rounding of the upper thoracic spine and depression of the 
chest so characteristic in this exercise. 

The return movement — the "push-up" — is accomplished by the 
contraction of the triceps, pectorals and rhomboids, aided b\- the 
short head of biceps, coraco-brachialis and anterior deltoid. As 
was pointed out in the analysis of the fauhy type of *''Front Rest'* 
the extreme contraction of the pectorals against great resistance 
tends to bring the muscles of each side into line with each other, 
unless their action is balanced by vigorous contraction of their 
antagonists posteriorly. In this case such neutralizing action is 
rarely if ever sufficient, so that, while it is possible to return to 
the correct position of ''Cross Rest," the usual thing is that the 
mal-position of scapula, back and chest remains more or less 
as the arms are straightened and the body lifted. The finał re- 
turn position very often resembles the faulty "Front Rest." 

Considering the mechanical peculiarities of this movement, 
making a good posturę in the upper part of the body practically 
impossible during the greater part of both the descent and the 
ascent; inducing as it does, excessive, unbalanced action of the 
pectorals with almost complete shortening throughout ; and bear- 
ing in mind the fundamental principle that the body tends to 
retain permanently the postures it assumes when in action, the 
yicious tendency of this exercise from a postural standpoint 
should be perfectly obvious. Yet it is one of the most widely 
known and practiced exercises in the gymnasium. It is usually 
the first thing that a new "member" attempts. It seems to appeal 
to young men and boys, because, for one thing, it involves severe 
muscular work of a rather uncomfortable kind, and the ability 
to repeat the exercise many times is therefore presumably an in- 
dex of his strength and "hardness." This idea is no doubt fos- 
tered by the fact that the exercise is, unfortunately, one of the 
routine strength tests used in colleges and many other institu- 
tions. Again, the extreme contraction and tension of the pec- 
torals give rise to sensations which are somewhat similar to those 
associated with chest expansion, and this leads the lay performer 
to think that he is doing something which is "very good for chest 
development." In this thought he is not infreąuently encouraged 
by the person in charge. But, fortunately, the number of teach- 
ers who are willing to endorse exercises of this type is rapidly 
diminishing. 

While the simple type on the parallel bars has been selected 



82 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



for purposes of analysis, there are many exercises (more properly 
"stunts" or "tricks") on the parallel bars, horizontal bar and 
rings, in which the mechanism is identical. The so-called 
"swinging dip," by many supposed to be less objectionable than 
the ''still dip," differs in no essential respect from the latter, as 
far as the shoulder region is concerned. The same is true of 
the pushing down of the traveHng or wali parallels, although this 
is milder because the resistance is not so great. What has been 
said about the "dip" is true more or less of any movement in 
which the arm swings excessively backward in the sagittal piane, 
whether moved by the indiyiduaFs own muscular efforts, by his 
weiglit, or by external forces. 

The training of the chest muscles and triceps, which is> the 
chief end sought by those who practice such exercises in good 
faith, may be accomplished as effectively in other ways, e.g., by 
exercises with the chest weights, back to the weights; by work 
on suspension apparatus with the hands far apart; and by arm 
bending from the "Prone falling position" with the elbows mov- 
ing well sideways. In all these it is at least possible to keep the 
upper trunk erect, the back fiat and the chest expanded, and so 
to favor, rather than impair, a permanent good posturę by the 
very difficulties successfully overcome. 

D. SWIMMING, RO\VING, PADDLING, THROW^ING. 

40. The arm niovement in hreast stroke swimming may be 
conveniently divided into three parts. (1) Placing the hands in 
front of the chest. This involves, besides flexion at the elbow and 
wrist, a slight flexion with a little abduction in the shoulder joint, 
accompanied, as usual, with some rotation upward of the scapula. 

(2) The thrusting forward of the hands. This would be equiva- 
lent to an arm stretching forward-upward, if the body were in 
the upright position. AnatoR^ically it means extension in the 
elbow and wrist joints, complete flexion in the shoulder joimt and 
considerable rotation upward with abduction of the scapula. The 
active muscles are therefore, the triceps; the upper pectoraHs 
major, anterior (and central) deltoid, short (and long) head of 
biceps and coraco-brachialis ; the trapezius and serratus magnus. 

(3) The stroke proper, which would correspond to a backward- 
downward sweep of the arms, with the palms turned downward 
and backward, if the body were in the upright position ;'in other 
words, extension with at first abduction, then adduction, as well 
as rotation inward in the shoulder joint; rotation downward with 
adduction of the scapula ; and pronation in the forearm. The 
motor muscles are the posterior deltoid, the latissimus and teres 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 83 

major, the lower pectoralis major and subscapularis ; the pec- 
toralis minor and rhomboids; the central and lower trapezius. 
The longitudinal back and posterior neck muscles maintain a vig- 
orous contraction throughout. As will readily be seen, the 
mechanism is such as to compel a correct posturę of the head, 
chest, shoulders and back, and the exercise is generally recognized 
as a valuable one for purposes of postural improvement. 

41. Rowing. The straight backed type will be assumed, with 
the body swinging behind as well as in front of the vertical 
(about 30° to 40° each way; fixed seat). 

When the oars catch, the body is bent sharply at the hips, the 
lower back is straight or flexed (in individuals whose lumbar 
spines are capable of that), the elbow is extended, the shoulder 
joint flexed, the scapula partially abducted, rotated upward and 
elevated. The stroke begins with extension in the hip and lum- 
bar spine. This continues throughout and is supplemented 
toward the end by flexion in the elbow; extension comiDined at 
first with abduction followed by adduction in the shoulder joint, 
as well as some rotation outward in this joint; adduction with 
rotation downward of the scapula. The active muscles are the 
erector spinse and hip joint extensors, the biceps and brachialis 
anticus, the central and posterior deltoid and the supraspinatus, 
the infraspinatus and teres minor, the latissimus and teres major, 
the rhomboids and trapezius (lower and central portions). Con- 
scious effort is necessary to keep the head back, the upper back 
straight and the shoulders Iow. This reąuires partial relaxation 
of the anterior, and contraction of the posterior neck muscles, as 
well as additional work on the part of the scapular depressors 
(principally the lower trapezius and the latissimus) . The recovery 
is accomplished by the contraction of the abdominal muscles and 
hip joint flexors until the vertical position of the trunk has been 
passed. After that, gravity is the chief motor force in causmg 
further bend at the hips, and in the lower back. At the same 
time the arms are thrust forward by extension in the elbow, 
flexion, with at first abduction, then adduction and gradual ro- 
tation inward in the shoulder joint, abduction and rotation up- 
ward of the scapula. (The feathering of the oar is the result of 
hyperextension in the wrist joint.) These movements are pro- 
duced by the triceps; the upper pectoralis major, anterior deltoid, 
coraco-brachialis and short head of the biceps ; the serratus 
magnus and trapezius. While the hip joint extensors and lower 
erector spinse relax during the first part of the recovery, they begin 
to contract "eccentrically" — resisting gravity — soon after the ver- 
tical has been passed. The posterior neck muscles and upper 
erector spinse have to be in action all the time, if the head and 



84 GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOG/ 

upper back are to be kept erect. The same is true of the scapular 
adductors. Rowing of this type is favorable to good posturę, be- 
sides being an excellent generał exercise. 

42. Paddling. Assume that the left hand is high, right hand 
Iow. The position at the beginning of the stroke has been 
reached by a twisting of the trunk to left and a slight bend to 
right at the waist; by flexion combined with a little abduction in 
both shoulder joints, more in the left than in the right; by abduc- 
tion with rotation upward of both scapulse, the right more than 
the left. The left scapula is also elevated somewhat and there 
is usually a partial flexion in the left elbow joint. 

The stroke consists of a twist to the right of the trunk with a 
straightening and even slight bend to the left at the waist; then 
on the right side, extension combined with increased abduction 
and some rotation inward in the shoulder joint; moderate ad- 
duction and rotation downward of the scapula; pronation in the 
forearm and usually some flexion in the elbow. On the left side 
there occur: extension in the elbow; extension with adduction 
in the shoulder joint; abduction of the scapula. As the stroke 
progresses the trunk is also raised a little by slight extension in 
the hip joints. The motor muscles are therefore the obliąue 
abdominal and back muscles and the extensors of the hip joint 
and back. On the right side: the latissimus, teres major, pos- 
terior and central deltoid (and supraspinatus), lower pectoralis 
major, rhomboids and trapezius, triceps (at first). On the left 
side: the triceps, lower pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, ser- 
ratus magnus, latissimus and teres major. 

43. Throwing. The ordinary overhand type will be assumed. 
The arm is raised, at first a little forward, then sideways-upward 
and backward, and the hand brought behind and above the 
shoulder, preparatory to the delivery, by flexion in the elbow, 
flexion, abduction and rotation outward in the shoulder joint, 
and adduction of the scapula. At the same time, the trunk is 
twisted to the right, the weight is shifted to the right foot, and 
the advance of the left foot is begun. The motor muscles for this 
part of the movement are the biceps, etc, the deltoid, infraspinatus 
and teres minor; the trapezius and rhomboids, the obliąue ab- 
dominal and back muscles which rotate the trunk to the right. 

The throw proper, or delivery, consists in the first place of a 
twisting of the trunk to the left with transfer of the weight to 
the advancing left foot. At the same time the segments of the 
upper extremity execute a series of movements which may be 
described as abduction with rotation upward of the scapula, a 
forward movement of the humerus, while remaining horizontal 
(bringing the shoulder joint to a position of flexion from a po- 



UPPER TRUNK AND SHOULDER REGION 



85 



sition of abduction with rotation outward). Then follow exten- 
sion in the elbow, and straightening of the wrist (previously hy- 
perextended). The muscles responsible for this part of the 
movement are : the obHąue abdominal and back muscles which ro- 
tate the trunk to the left (as well as the extensors of the right 
hip and knee joints) ; the serratus magnus and pectoraHs minor; 
the pectorahs major, subscapularis and anterior deltoid; the tri- 
ceps (and the flexors of the wrist joint). 

The amount of momentum developed depends largely on the 
proper seąuence and increasing speed of the movements of the 
yarious segments, from the center to the periphery. This includes 
keeping the elbow in front of the hand until the last moment. 



B. LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION. 



The Need and Value of Motor Training in This Region. 

In analyzing the mechanism of movements involving the 
shoulder and upper trunk region, attention was freąuently called 
to the close association of the joints and muscles of the arm, 
shoulder girdle and upper spine. Unless conscious effort is made 
to avoid it, any movement of one of these parts is apt to be dis- 
tributed to the other two, thereby changing their relative positions. 
The definitions of most of the movements described were such as 
to reąuire inhibition, or breaking up, of some of those natural 
associations on the one hand, and on the other to cultivate new 
and sometimes rather difficult associations. The purpose of such 
definitions is to induce under all conditions well coordinated 
action of the muscles responsible for good posturę of head, neck, 
shoulders, upper back and chest; to maintain and to increase 
mobility of the joints in directions where mobility gradually 
tends to diminish ; and to train the power of localization of move- 
ment with a view gradually to increase the ability to localize 
muscular contraction. This ultimately makes for efficiency and 
economy of effort. Repeated successful efforts of this kind, un- 
der increasing difficulties, give the individual the sense of good 
posturę, teach him how to assume it, and, we hope, give him the 
ambition as well as the ability to form better postural and motor 
habits. In the growing individual we may reasonably expect that 
by persistent practice of gymnastic exercises of this kind (with a 
good, erect posturę maintained throughout) the structural rela- 
tions, as well as the motor habits, will be most favorably influ- 
enced. It is a case of "bending the twig" in the direction we 
wish it to grow. 

In the lower trunk and hip region, the relations as regards 
movements and positions of the various parts — spine, pelvis and 
lower extremity — are analogous to those existing in the upper 
trunk and shoulder region, It is very difficult, if not impossible, 
to make extensive or powerful movements of one without involv- 
ing the others. Postural relations are eąually interdependent. 
Here, even more than in the upper trunk and shoulder, gravity 
plays an important róle, as the region is especially adapted for 
weight-bearing. Any considerable deviation from the straight 
line, or any ineąuality or asymmetry in one place may always be 
expected to involve compensatory adjustment above or below. 
For example, if the right leg is longer than the left, the right hip 
will be higher or project more than the left, and the lower spine 
will be curved with the convexity to the left. Similarly, if the 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



87 



leg is raised ąuickly and forcibly to one side, the pelvis will be 
tilted and the lumbar spine convex to the opposite side. Again, 
such an exercise as leg raising backward is entirely a displace- 
ment of the pelvis involving movement of complex character in 
the opposite hip joint and the lumbar spine. In short, any ex- 
tensive movement of the femur is accompanied by changes in the 
position of the pelvis, brought about chiefly by movement in the 
lumbar spine. This is partly due to the relatively lirnited rangę 
of motion in the hip joint (as compared with the- shoulder joint), 
partly, as in the shoulder region, to the close functional associa- 
tion of the muscles. Finally, even slight movements in one or 
both hip joints in the upright position involve changes of posturę 
in the pelvis and lumbar spine on account of the redistribution of 
the weight which is a necessary concomitant in such movements. 

The need for varied and systematic training of the large and 
powerful neuro-muscular mechanisms of this region is perhaps 
not as fully recognized as in the case of the upper trunk and 
shoulder region. The relatively lirnited scope and variety of 
moyements in the lower part of the body, the usually vague and 
undefined character of their combinations and the naturally close 
association of many of the muscle groups might suggest on the 
one hand that this is not a very fertile field for the cultivation of 
fine distinctions and delicate adjustment of movement ; on the 
other, that if any results in these directions are attainable, they 
may not represent enough value to be worth striving for. But 
a little observation and analysis will show that the motor adjust- 
ments in this region, while not as extensive and varied as in the 
shoulder region, owing to the greater prominence of the support- 
ing function, are nevertheless more numerous and complex than 
at first might appear. Many of them are capable of division into 
their component elements, which may be trained separately or re- 
arranged in new combinations, thereby improving the power of 
localization, eliminating unnecessary or undesirable features, in- 
creasing variety and accuracy of adjustment and so enlarging the 
individuars subjective control and his adaptability to his en- 
vironment. 

The perfect automatism of a great many coordinations having 
to do with locomotion and the upright position and acąuired so 
long ago that we arę unaware of their existence or have dis- 
missed them from our minds as of no further interest, is partly 
responsible for the tendency to neglect the finer motor training in 
this region. Here, even more than is the case in the upper part 
of the body, we are apt to let things be ''as the Lord made them." 
Because of the deeply grooved motor and postural habits, because 
of the fundamenta! character of many associated movements, we 



88 GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 

are loth to attempt to modify or break up these deeply rooted 
associations. The difficulties encountered are undoubtedly great 
and the results not always as encouraging as we should like. But 
such considerations should not deter us from trying to improve 
and diyersify motor control in this region by selecting, defining 
and teaching gymnastic exercises that demand the utmost efforts 
on the part of our pupils to assume and retain under all condi- 
tions the best posturę of which they are capable; to move with 
speed and ' precision, or with deHberation and steadiness ; to 
appreciate smali differences of piane, direction, rhythm, mo- 
mentum, etc. The ability to localize movement and even to some 
extent muscular contraction in this region is one of the factors 
which determine the gait. Proper weight distribution is an- 
other. The sense of balance and rhythm are eąually important 
in this respect. All of these elements influence posturę, not only 
in the lower part of the body, but in the upper as well. All eon- 
tribute largely to the generał bearing of the individual, to the de- 
gree of grace and efficiency of his movements. All may be culti- 
vated by carefully defined and properly executed gymnastic exer- 
cises. If the teaching and guidance are what they should be, and 
if the pupils can be induced to put forth the reąuisite effort be- 
tween, as well as during, the lessons, the right kind of motor 
ideals, concepts and habits can in this way be most effectively 
conveyed and inculcated. 

From the physiological standpoint yigorous movements of the 
lower trunk and extremity rank first in importance. Strong con- 
tractions of the abdominal and lower trunk muscles and of the 
large groups of hip and thigh muscles profoundly influence the 
functions of all the great vital organs. In this respect, as well as 
regards the training of good posturę and motor control, definite, 
clean-cut, localized movements are probably more effectiye than 
movements of the opposite character, if for no other reason than 
that they demand more work in a given time. However, the advan- 
tage of this style of work is here less obvious. In the begin- 
ning, before a sufficient amount of coordination has been acąuired, 
it is admittedly less effective, as time has to be spent in drilling 
certain fundamental details which reąuire a relatively smali 
amount of muscular action, or at any rate break up the con- 
tinuity of the work. 

Anatomical Revie\v. 

Before taking up the discussion of the mechanism of gymnastic 
movements, a resume of the principal anatomical facts, which 
form a basis for such discussion, will be of advantage. 



LOWER TRUKK AXD HIP REGION 



89 



T. JOINTS. 

1. The lumhar spine. On account of the relative thickness of 
the intervertebral disks and the comparative laxness of the cap- 
sular and other ligaments, flexion, extension and lateral 
bendings are freer here than in any other part of the spine. 
The normal position of the region is one of hyperextension, that 
is, concave posteriorly. This may be carried considerably fur- 
ther. The opposite movement, starting from extreme hyper- 
extension, to and a Httle beyond the straight Hne, leading to a 
sHght reversal of the normal curve (in the average young person 
at least), must all be included in the term flexion, as there is no 
term which describes the return from the position of hyper- 
extension. Sometimes the term straightening will be used to ex- 
press this. In flexion, extension and hyperextension, as well as 
in lateral bendings, the two or three lowest thoracic yertebrse 
move as the lumbar, but less extensively. They may therefore be 
considered as belonging to the lumbar region in these respects. 

Rotation — a twisting of the column on an axis passing through 
the bodies of the yertebrse — is very limited, owing to the piane 
of the surfaces by which the articular processes meet. These sur- 
faces are yertical and face more or less inward and outward, so 
that true rotation, involving a gliding of these surfaces on each 
other, is effectively prevented by the locking of the articular 
processes. There is, how^ever, a slight amount of movement cor- 
responding to rotation, made possible by the fact that the articular 
surfaces do not approximate each other very closely. This loose- 
ness of fit, and the leeway thus allowed, in conjunction with suc- 
cessive alternation of flexion, lateral movement and extension 
between contiguous yertebrae, results in a kind of spiral movement 
which to a limited extent (amounting to perhaps from 5° to 15°) 
takes the place of true rotation. 

2. The sacro-iliac joint. The sacrum is wedge-shaped both 
from above downward and from before backward. The planes 
of its articular surfaces and those of the ilia even in the normal 
position are obliąue, converging backward and upward, so that 
the upper end of the sacrum, receiving the weight of the whole 
trunk, tends to be displaced forward and downward, the lower end 
backward and upward. The sacro-iliac ligaments, anterior and 
posterior, and especially the latter, limit this tilting of the sacrum 
and prevent it from slipping away from between the ilia. The 
strong, short fibers of the posterior ligaments are the chief agents 
in transmitting the weight of the trunk to the ilia, especially when 
the pelvis is carried in a position of greater than normal 
obliąuity. Under the, opposite conditions, that is, when the piane 



90 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



of the pelvis is nearer the horizontal than under normal condi- 
tions, the sacrum is tilted in such a way as to approach the ver- 
tical. Its upper end is then wedged in between the ilia, spread- 
ing them apart. In this case a part of the weight is transmitted 
directly from one bone to the other, causing excessive pressure 
of the joint surfaces on each other. Both extremes of posturę 
predispose to pathological conditions in the joints (Goldthwait). 

These movements of the sacrum on a horizontal axis always 
accompany movements in the lumbar spine and hip joint. While 
they are very Hmited in extent, the fact that they occur at all 
under normal conditions, even in adult males, is of interest from 
a gymnastic standpoint chiefly on account of the influence of 
posturę on the maintenance or restoration of healthy conditions 
in the joints, as shown by Goldthwaite's recent investigation of 
this subject.* 

3. The hip joint. The deep acetabular cavity and the tight- 
fitting capsular and ilio-femoral ligaments, while making for 
strength and security also reduce to some extent the mobility of 
the joint. Being a bali and socket joint, all kinds of movement 
are nevertheless permitted and are fairly free. Extension, how- 
ever, does not go further than to bring the femur into line with 
the trunk. Hyperextension, that is, a backward movement of the 
femur on the pelvis, is prevented by the ilio-femoral ligament, 
which completely locks the two bones in the position of extension. 

Like the shoulder joint the hip joint is surrounded on all sides 
by muscles or tendons. These sęrve as accessory, elastic liga- 
ments, checking movements before the proper ligaments have 
become stretched, thus relieving them. from too sudden and vio- 
lent tension. At the same time this intimate muscular connec- 
tion between the two bones leads to a participation of the pelvis 
in the movements of the femur long before the limits of motion 
in the hip joint have been reached. The muscles, with the ilio- 
femoral ligament, also steady the pelvis on the femur in the 
upright position, and especially in movements and transitory or' 
sustained positions on one leg. 

II. MUSCLES. 

1. The ńexors of the lumbar and lower thoracic spine are the 
straight and obliąue abdominal muscles. Being attached to the 
brim of the pelvis and the lower circumference of the thorax, they 
will draw these two points together. This can only be done by 
flexion in the lower spine, that is, by a straightening and reversal 



*A Consideratiqn of the Pelvic Articulations from an Anatomical, Pathological and 
Clinical Standpoint'. J E. Goldthwaite and R. B. Osgood, Boston Medi:al and Surgical 
Journal, CLII., 21 and 23, pp. 593-634. 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



91 



of the natural anteriorly convex curve in this region. Tliis 
movement may be called flexion of the trunk on the pelvis, or of 
the pelvis on the trunk, according to which is the more fixed part. 

If flexion in the lower spine is prevented by contraction of the 
extensors, shortening of the abdominal muscles will cause re- 
tractión of the abdomen, with or without depression of the chest 
according to the amount of resistance offered by the muscles of 
inspiration. 

The e.rtensors of the lower spine are the erector spinse and its 
primary divisions, the lower fibers of the spinalis ,and semi- 
spinalis dorsi, the lower multifidus spinse and the lumbar inter- 
spinales. AU of these will be referred to as the erector spinse 
group or as the lower erector spinse. 

The muscles which are active in lateral bendings of the spine 
are the abdominal muscles, the erector spinse (including the 
intertransversales), the ąuadratus lumborum, the serratus 
posticus inferior and under some conditions the latissimus dorsi, 
all on one side. Whether the muscles on the side toward which 
the movement takes place or those on the opposite side are 
active depends on the relation of gravity or external forces to the 
movement. 

The rotators of the spine to the left are: The left serratus 
posticus inferior, the left erector spinse and its divisions, the left 
internal obliąue abdominal niuscle ; the right serratus posticus 
superior, the right semi-spinalis dorsi, the right multifidus spinse, 
the right rotatores spinse, the right levatores costarum, the right 
external obliąue abdominal muscle. 

2. The hip- joint muscles: 

Flexors: Psoas and iliacus ; sartorius ; rectus femoris; pec- 
tineus ; adductor longus ; adductor brevis ; pyriformis. 

Extensors: Gluteus maximus, gluteus medius (posterior por- 
tion) ; the so-called ham-string muscles — ^biceps (flexor cruris), 
semitendinosus, semimembranosus. 

Ahductors: Gluteus maximus ; gluteus medius; gluteus mini- 
mus; tensor fasci^ latse (also the deep rotators, except the ob- 
turator externus, in the sitting position). 

Adductors: Adductor magnus ; adductor longus ; adductor 
brevis ; pectineus ; gracilis. 

Rotators inward: Tensor fascise latse; gluteus medius (an- 
terior part) ; gluteus minimus (anterior part). 

Rotators outward: Gluteus maximus ; gluteus medius (pos- 
terior); psoas and iliacus; sartorius, pectineus; the three ad- 
ductors ; the deep rotators — pyriformis, obturator internus, gem- 
elli, obturator externus, ąuadratus femoris. 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



93 



It will be seen from the above that many of the muscles 
enumerated act in morę than one capacity, in that respect resem- 
bling the varied actions of many or most of the muscles in the 
shoulder region. The reasons are the same, viz. : (1) the ex- 
tensive lines of attachment oi some of the muscles, as the glutei, 
by which different portions of the same muscle act from opposite 
directions and under different mechanical conditions, such as 
leverage, obliąuity of puli, etc; (2) the proximity of many 
muscles to the joint, and their obliąue direction with reference 
to two or more axes of motion, as for example the tensor fascise 
latse, the sartorius, the gluteus maximus and the deep rotators. 
They are thereby able to contribute to several kinds of movement 
or to act differently in different positions of the joint. 

The action of the hip joint muscles is further complicated, in 
certain movements, by the fact that some of them are attached 
directly or indirectly (through the fascia lata) to the lower leg 
and thus produce movement or influence positions in the knee 
joint. Notable examples of this are the rectus femoris, the sar- 
torius and gracilis, and the ham-string muscles. Owing to this 
the mechanism of many movements in the hip joint varies as re- 
gards degree, kind and complexity of muscular action, accord- 
ing to accompanying movements, or inhibition of movements, 
in the knee joint. 



Gymnastic Moyements and Positions. 



A. DIFFERENT TYPES OF STANDING POSITION. 



1. The distribution of weight and 
its relation to posturę in the 
lower spine, the hip and knee 
joints varies considerably in 
different types of habitual, 
easy standing position. In the 
best of these the thoracic 
curve is moderate, long and 
even, the lumbar curve Iow 
and not too sharp. The 
weight line passes in front of, 
but fairly close to the thoracic 
spine; through the bodies of 
the upper lumbar yertebrse, 
behind the lower; slightly be- 
hind the hip joint; and 
through, or a little in front of, 
the center of the knee joint. 




Fig. 



30. Different Types of 
Standing Position. 



94 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



When the tone of the upper back and abdominal muscles is 
good, excessive tension on the spinał ligaments and compression 
of the anterior or posterior edges of the intervertebral disks does 
not occur, and the spine is balanced and kept in an easy, erect 
position without much conscious muscular effort. 

The sHght forward position of the hips with normal pelvic 
obliąuity (the piane of the true pelvis about 60° to the ground), 
insures extension in the hip joint. The weight line faUing behind 
the center of this joint, gravity tends to produce hyperextension, 
but this is prevented by the iho-femoral Hgament, .which is put 
on the stretch when the femur is in line with the trunk. Gravity, 
in connection with this ligament, thus relieves the extensor mus- 
cles from much responsibility in keeping the pelvis steady on the 
femur and the hip joint in extension. 

In the knee joint similar mechanical conditions insure 
the extended position without much muscular effort. But 
here the weight line rarely falls -far enough in front of the 
joint to lock it completely, and a very slight shifting of the 
weight backward makes it fali behind the center of the 
joint, so that a slight contraction of the ąuadriceps is often 
necessary. 

2. Of the undesirable variations from the easy standing 
position described in the preceding paragraph two main 
types are fairly common, In one of these the hips are 
carried excessively forward, the lumbar curve is Iow, not 
very marked, sometimes almost obliterated ; while the 

ithoracic is pronounced and long, often encroaching on the 
upper lumbar region. The extreme forward position of 
the hips leads to decreased pelvic obliąuity, the piane of the 
pelvis approaching too nearly the horizontal and the sacrum 
? too nearly the vertical, wedged in between and spreading 
the ilia. The weight line falls considerably behind the hip 
joint and also slightly behind the knee joint. This leads to 
absolute extension in the hip joint with strong tension on the 
ilio-femoral ligament and allows complete relaxation of the ex- 
tensor muscles of this joint. The knee joint is often in a state of 
partial flexion and is kept from further flexion only by a mod- 
erate contraction of the ąuadriceps muscle. This type of re- 
laxed standing position is usually associated with poor generał 
muscular tone and development, the atrophied condition of the 
gluteal region being particularly striking. 

3. In the other type the hips are carried too far back, the lum- 
bar curve is pronounced, long or high, often including the two or 
three lowest thoracic yertebrse. The thoracic curve is also apt 
to be excessive, but short and high. The weight line falls 








LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



95 




Fig. 31. 



HOLLOW BaCK " POSITION. 



well in front of tlie thoracic, con- 
siderably behind the lumbar 
spine, and more or less in front 
of the hip as well as the knee 
joint. Individuals of this 
"hollow-back" type are not 
infreąuently strong and 
heayiły muscled, but the 
upper back and particu- 
larly the abdominal mus- 
cles are of relatively Iow 
tone and habitually re- 
laxed. Gravity acting with 
good leverage owing to the 
already excessive curves 
exerts a strong passive ten- 
sion on these muscles as 
well as on the spinał Hga- 
ments (pressure on the 
3 edges of the disks), and so 
tends to increase the 
curves still further. The posterior position of the hips is asso- 
ciated with too great pelvic obliąuity, and this in turn means 
excessive tipping forward of (the upper end of) the sacrum, 
approximation of the ilia, spreading of the ischia, and too great 
tension on the sacro-iliac ligaments. The weight line falling in 
front of the hip joint gravity constantly tends to increase the 
partial flexion in this joint which is another feature associated 
with too great pelvic obliąuity. This necessitates con- 
stant moderate contraction of the hip joint extensors. 
The knee joint is kept locked in the extended position 
by gra vi ty. 

4. A third, less common type, resembles the pre- 
ceding in the excessive, elongated curve of the lumbar 
region (including the lower thoracic yertebrse), in the 
increased pelvic obliąuity and in the flexed position of 
the hip joint. It differs from it in the conformation 
and posturę of the upper part of the body, being 
usually associated with well-shaped chest and shoul- 
ders, fairly straight and fiat upper back. The mus- 
cular tone is good generally, and especially in the 
back. The abdomen, however, is apt to be somewhat 
relaxed, but less so than in the preceding type. 

5. Faiilty posturę in the lower triink and hip re- A. 
gion induced by gymnastic exercises. Closely resem- 5. 



96 



GYMXASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



bling the last described variety of relaxed or semi-relaxed po- 
sition, as regards the lower part of the body, is the position with 
exaggerated and usually high lumbar curve which occurs as a by- 
product of misdirected or poorly locahzed efforts to straighten the 
upper back and to improve the posturę of head, chest and 
shoulders. 

Ali gymnastic standing positions, whether correct or incorrect, 
dififer from all varieties of easy standing position in that con- 
scious, yigorous contraction of the upper back muscles is de- 
manded in order to obtain a good, erect posturę in the upper part 
of the body. The latter may or may not be accomplished, but in 
any case the effort nearly always leads to increased lumbar hyper- 
extension and pelvic obliąuity. The reasons for this are as fol- 
lows : Strong contraction of the erector spinse group cannot, 
without special training or skill, be confined to the higher levels, 
the different portions of this group acting as one muscle. This 
muscular mass is thickest and most compactly arranged in the 
lower back. Here, running along the naturally concave lumbar 
spine it works under more favorable mechanical cońditions than 
higher up, where it covers the convex thoracic spine and pos- 
terior chest wali. The lumbar spine has much greater freedom of 
movement, especially in a backward direction, and so offers less 
resistance, than the thoracic region, encumbered as this is with 
the relatively rigid and heavy chest. Finally, gravity from the 
outset favors increased hyperextension in the lower back, while 
it opposes extension . in the thoracic region, at least until the 
upper trunk has been tilted backward considerably (by hyper- 
extension in the lumbar spine). 

The induced lordosis resulting from the generał contraction 
of the whole erector spinse group in attempts to stand up straight 
is even more pronounced in many gymnastic exercises involving 
strong contraction of the posterior 'scapular muscles and par- 
ticularly of the latissimus dorsi. These superficial back muscles 
are closely associated with the erector spinae group, maximal 
contraction of one set usually inducing action of the other. The 
latissimus also acts directly on the lower spine, pulling it for- 
ward, as well as indirectly through its puli on the three lowest 
ribs. Then there are many gymnastic exercises in which power- 
ful contraction of the lower erector spinae is necessary for suc- 
cessful performance, as for example in leg raising backward, 
prone lying position, and many vaults. There are also some 
useful exercises in which marked hyperextension due to gravity 
or to the puli of the psoas and ilicus muscles is an almost un- 
avoidable feature. Examples of this are the prone hanging and 
the prone falling position, opposite sitting backward bending of 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



97 



trunk, the hand stand. Ali gymnastic exercises tending to pro- 
duce this abnormal posturę in the lower back may be justly 
criticised on this account and can only be defended on grounds 
of generał or special value in other directions, or by defining and 
teaching them in such a way that this fault will be largely or 
wholly eliminated. In many cases this can be done by patience 
and persistence in the teaching and by judicious progression. 
(The muscular action necessary to prevent or correct this faulty 
posturę will be discussed under the fundamental gymnastic stand- 
ing position.) 

Aside from sesthetic considerations, excessive **hollow" in the 
lower back, whether habitual or induced by conscious muscular 
contraction, is undesirable for many reasons. The associated ab- 
normal position of the pelvis and its joints has already been men- 
tioned. Discomfort — popularly referred to as weakness — in the 
lower back, resulting from long standing in this position, is very 
common. There is greater liability to injury — sprains of the 
spinał and sacro-iliac joints — in falls or missteps, partly because 
the weight acts with greater leverage and on ligaments already 
stretched; partly and chiefly because in the greatly relaxed con- 
dition of the abdominal muscles so commonly associated with 
lordosis, these muscles fail to give that support to the spinał 
column and that elastic resistance to sudden, excessive hyper- 
extension which would save the joints and ligaments from too 
great strain. Finally, the marked forward convexity in the lower 
back and the relaxed abdominal wali allow the abdominal organs, 
suspended in their mesenteric sling from the upper lumbar spine, 
to sag unduly forward-downward and deprives them of their 
proper support, conditions which are inimical to their healthy 
functioning. 

In view of the actual and potential disadvantages of exag- 
gerated curve in the lower back, and because so many gymnastic 
exercises can be done in a way to produce or aggravate this 
condition, it should be one of the legitimate objects of gymnastic 
work and the duty of those who teach it to furnish definite and 
systematic training of a kind calculated to make this fault less 
accentuated when it already exists, and to prevent, as far as 
possible, its occurrence as a by-product of gymnastic movements 
and positions. In the selection, definition, progression and teach- 
ing of the exercises this element should always be reckoned with, 
and no performance accepted as satisfactory in which the posturę 
in the lower part of the body is markedly defective. 

While the muscular tone and control necessary for the preven- 
tion and correction of excessive lumbar hyperextension and pelvic 
obliąuity may to some extent be acąuired by gymnastic class 



98 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



exercises, it will always be found helpful and sometimes necessary, 
especially in the beginning, to supplement the generał instruction 
with individual suggestion and help. Actually placing the pupil in 
the forced correct position by manipulation may be the only way 
to give him a elear idea of it, to make him acąuainted with the 
bodily sensations which accompany the change in weight distri- 
bution and the muscular efforts reąuired to retain it. The 
memory of these will then serve as a guide in repeated efforts on 
his part to assume and maintain the correct posturę under vary- 
ing conditions, gymnastic or otherwise. 

6. The gymnastic fundamental standing position. The defini- 
tion and mechanism of the fundamental position in the upper 
trunk and shoulder region has been given in an earlier chapter 
(page 21). In the lower part of the body conscious effort 
should be made to straighten the lumbar spine, or at any rate to 
prevent increased hyperextension ; to reduce pelvic obliąuity, 
and to keep the hip joint in complete extension. The pos- 
tural relations of the spine, pelvis and lower extremity 
should at least be made to eąual those obtaining in the 
best type of easy standing position, as regards proximity 
of the different, parts to the weight line. In any case the 
alignment of upper and lower spine, pelvis and leg should 
be as absolute, and the undulations in front and behind 
the weight line as limited as 
individual peculiarities will 
allow. This demands a strong 
contraction of the abdominal 
muscles at all times, and, in the 
beginning, also of the glutei and 
hamstring muscles. The effect 

Jof the action of both groups is 
to reduce the obliąuity of the 
pelvis, i.e. to tilt it into a more 
^- horizontal position. The abdo- 
minal muscles puli its anterior 
margin upward and forward, the 
glutei and hamstring muscles puli 
its posterior portion downward. The 
resulting movement involves ex- 
tension in the hip joint and 
straightening of the lumbar spine. By 
this muscular effort the pelvis is 
also displaced forward sufficiently 
to bring the hip joint in front 32. 

r ,1 • Uj- r -4. 4.U CORRECTED " Hollow-Back 

of the weight Ime. Gravity then position. 




LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



99 



aids in keeping this joint in the extended position by acting against 
and stretching the ilio-femoral ligament sitiiated in front of tlie 
joint. The whole movement may be termed flexion of the pelvis 
on the trunk, the hip joint extension being incidental, due to the 
relative fixation of the lower end of the femur in the standing 
position. By this movement of the pelvis, produced by concerted 
action of the abdominał muscles, the hip joint extensors and 
gravity, the excessive action of the lower erector spinae, instinc- 
tively associated with all efforts to straighten the upper back, is 
balanced and its effects neutrahzed: marked hyperextension in 
the lumbar spine is prevented, the natural curve may even be 
almost obUterated, the pelvis is kept from being displaced back- 
ward and its obHąuity is reduced. 

Simple as this muscular effort and redistribution of weight 
appear (on paper) they are rather difficult to learn and to teach, 
What usually happens at first is that, as soon as the lower back 
and pelvis are brought into the desired position, there is a 
"'slump" in the upper part of the body, due to a relaxation of all 
the back muscles. It is another example of the diffiiculty of dis- 
sociating the action of the different parts of complex neuro- 
muscular mechanisms, habitually working together as units, of 
inhibiting the action of some parts, while others remain in strong 
contraction, of adjusting and harmonizing the action of the latter 
to the partly antagonistic action of other forces in order to obtain 
new combinations of m.ovements or position. The opposing forces 
in this case are on one hand the whole erector spinae group and 
the posterior scapular muscles working together to produce ex- 
tension (ańd hyperextension) of the trunk in a generał way, and 
incidentally leading to one kind of pelvic displacement ; on the 
other hand the abdominał muscles and the hip joint extensors, 
striving to flex the trunk and thereby producing the opposite kind 
of pelvic displacement. The first set tends to bring the middle 
trunk region in front of and the hip region behind the weight 
line; the other set tends to reverse this weight distribution. 
Gravity aids whichever set obtains a decided advantage and op- 
poses the other. To the average person it seems at first impos- 
sible to make both of these efforts at the same time and in such 
a way as to straighten the whole spine. When a smali measure 
of success is attained (with assistance, usually), the result is 
absolute rigidity. Complete success in harmonizing the two 
kinds of effort hinges on the ability to relax the lower erector 
spinae while keeping the upper part of this muscle as well as the 
posterior scapular muscles strongly contracted. When this 
ability is finally attained the characteristic rigidity of the position 
disappears to a great extent. For then the action of the glutei 



100 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



and hamstring muscles, which lock the hip joint, may be largeiy 
dispensed with, gravity being sufficient to keep this joint in ex- 
tension. The abdominal muscles, however, must remain con- 
tracted to neutralize the partial contraction of the lower erector 
spinse which is rarely entirely eliminated, or at any rate to guard 
the lumbar spine against the eifect of sudden contraction of this 
muscle. Such is apt to occur at any moment, induced by a change 
of-position higher up, e.g. a backward movement of the arms or 
head. 

There need be np fear of excessive contraction of the abdomi- 
nal muscles on account of the tendency this would have to depress 
the chest. If the upper erector spinse, the scapular depressors and 
other muscles of forced chest expansion remain as active as they 
should, this does not occur. Any excess of contraction of the 
abdominal muscles beyond what is needed to keep the lumbar 
spine straight will then only lead to a retraction of the abdomen. 
This, to be sure, interferes with the descent of the diaphragm, but 
as that in turn compels upper and lateral costal breathing, some- 
thing which most people need to cultivate, it may be considered 
a gain rather than otherwise. 

When the habitual standing position of an individual cor- 
responds to the type described in Section 2, with the hips too 
far forward, upper spinał curve too long and lower back too 
straight, excessive lumbar hyperextension is not so apt to occur 
when efforts are made to straighten the upper back. In such 
individuals it is of advantage to induce contraction of the whole 
erector spinse group, and the resulting moderate increase of 
hyperextension in the lower back, greater pelvic obliąuity and 
slight backward displacement of the hips represent more favor- 
able weight distribution and are desirable features from an 
sesthetic, postural and physiological standpoint. But even here 
the abdominal muscles should be moderd*tely contracted to guard 
against excessive action of the lower erector spinse. 

The muscular efforts demanded in the gymnastic fundamenta! 
standing position and the postural relations, both in the upper 
and lower part of the body, which result when these efforts are 
properly coórdinated, are of a character to oppose most directly 
and effectively the unfavorable influences of daily life, and par- 
ticularly those influences associated with sedentary habits. But 
aside from direct postural and physiological effects, the repeated 
and increasingly successful attempts to assume this position and 
to maintain it for longer and longer periods of time and under 
yarying conditions, are bound to leave their impress on the central 
neryous system. They train the posturę sense, improve the habits 
of weight distribution, increase the power to inhibit unnecessary 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



101 



or excessive muscular action and so conduce to ease of bearing 
and economy of effort. Ali these are essential elements in that 
subjective control which determines ąuality and efficiency of 
bodily action. Ali represent educational value as truły as the 
training of habits of logical thinking and effective expression of 
thought, or of that uprightness of conduct which sljould underlie 
all actions and relations in life. 

B. FOOT PLACINGS, AND KNEE BENDINGS, 

7, Alternate foot placing sideways. A movement of one foot 
at a time directly in the lateral piane, about two foot lengths, 
weight distributed eąually on both feet, and then return to the 
fundamental position. The joint mechanism is simple : abduction, 
in both hip joints, starting an instant sooner on the "moving" 
(left) side than on the ''supporting" side. 

The principal muscular action is eąually simple. The left femur 
is moved by its abductors, tensor fascise latse and glutei, while 
gravity (the body falls to the left as soon as the left foot is lifted), 
aided by the right tensor fascise latae and glutei, produces the 
abduction in the right hip joint. The right hamstring muscles 
also contract to steady the pelvis on the right femur during the 
brief period of support on the right foot. The abdominal muscles 
and lower erector spinse on the left side contract at the beginning 
of the movement, those on the right side at the end — respectively 
starting and checking the bodily momentum. 

The return movement is started by a ąuick extension in the left 
ankle which, with the contraction of the right abdominal muscles 
and lower erector spinse, gives the body momentum to the right. 
This is sufficient to bring the right hip joint to the fundamental, 
adducted position, but the right adductors also help, especially 
if the movement is ąuick. The left femur is brought to the 
fundamental position by gravity, aided more or less by the left 
adductors, according to the speed of the movement. The right 
hip joint extensors are again active, as in the first part of the 
movement. 

8. Alternate foot placing forward. One foot at a time is 
moved straight ahead about two foot lengths, is firmly planted 
and receiyes half of the body weight. 

The joint mechanism consists principally of : (1) flexion with 
slight rotation outward and abduction in the hip joint of the 
advancing side (left as usual) ; (2) a corresponding amount of 
rotation inward and abduction in the hip joint of the supporting 
side (right) ; (3) a displacement of the pelvis — tilting forward 



102 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



(increased obliąuity) and usually a little rotation tO' the right, that 
is, the left side of the pelvis moves forward, the right backward ; 
(4) compensatory changes in the spine — hyperextension and 
rotation to left. The displacement of the pelvis with accompany- 
ing spinał adjustments takes the place of hyperextension in the 
right hip joint, and without them the right leg could not be 
placed (with straight knee) as far behind the erect trunk as the 
left is moved in front of it. When great care is exercised the 
only pelvic displacement is a tilting forward. Then the slight 
rotation and adduction in the hip joints, as well as the spinał 
rotation, are also absent. Efforts should be made to approach this 
as nearly as possible. (5) There is a slight, momentary flexion 
in the left knee joint as the foot is advanced. 

The principal active muscles are: (1) The left hip joint 
flexors and the abdominal muscles. The latter, with the right 
anterior lower leg muscles, give the body the initial impulse for- 
ward. Gravity does the rest. The left tensor fascise latse 
also contracts, assisting the flexors and producing the slight 
amount of abduction that may occur. (2) The lower erector 
spinse on both sides (left more than the right) contracts sharply 
just as the left foot strikes the ground, checking the forward 
momentum of the trunk. (3) The right tensor fascise latse, 
glutei and hamstring muscles keep the right hip joint locked in 
extension during the progress of the movement. The two former 
also resist the tendency to hyperadduction in the right hip joint — 
a swaying to the right of the pelvis and a ''settling" on the right 
hip — ^which always occurs when the left foot leaves the ground. 
Besides, they produce the slight abduction and rotation inward 
in the right hip joint which may occur. (4) The right ąuadri- 
ceps extensor is active, opposing the tendency of the right knee 
to bend. The left ąuadriceps contracts just before the left foot 
strikes the floor. 

The return movement is started by a ąuick extension in the 
left ankle and by contraction of the lower erector spinae on both 
sides, the right more than the left. The left hip joint extensors, 
with gravity, bring the left femur back to the fundamental 
position. 

In obliąue foot placings the features of both the forward ahd 
lateral movements are present, but are less pronounced than in 
t either of these. 

Alternate foot placings in different directions, while not rep- 
resenting a great amount of generał muscular work or very 
powerful contraction of any particular group, are valuable for 
the training they give in ąuick changes of weight distribution, 
adjustment and balance; in the control of body momentum; and 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



103 



in the localization of movement of the lower extremity as much 
as possible to the hip joint without too great displacement of 
the pelvis and trunk. When used in alternation with rhythmical 
trunk movements they help to keep the latter from becoming 
''oscillatory," indefinite, incomplete and slovenly, by marking 
the beginning and end of each movement. They also, when used 
in this way, contribute to the complexity, variety or difficulty of 
an exercise. 

9. Standing knee bending. Of the various movements which 
may be included under this term the type in which the knees move 
sideways as far as possible and the heels leave the ground will 
be assumed. This consists of flexion and abduction in the hip 
joint (both sides), fiexion in the knee and ankle joints, varying 
in degree according to whether the knee bending is the customary 
right angle bend or more (deep knee bending). 

Gravity is the motor force and the active muscles are the hip 
joint extensors and abductors — the hamstring muscles, glutei and 
tensor fascise latae ; the ąuadriceps extensor of the knee ; the 
gastrocnemius, soleus and other extensors of the ankle. The 
action of these is "eccentric," resisting gravity and determining 
the speed of the movement. The hip joint abductors are re- 
sponsible for the "spreading" of the knees. The return movement 
is accomplished by ''concentric" action, that is, shortening, of 
the same muscles. The trunk is kept balanced in the upright 
position throughout the movement by the contraction of the 
erector spinse against the moderate resistance of the abdominal 
muscles. 

The exercise demands a considerable amount of work on the 
part of the largest muscles in the body, and when the knee bend- 
ing is complete these muscles work not only against a greater 
weight leverage, but also through their whole rangę. Being 
well suited to rhythmical repetition it furnishes the most favorable 
conditions for the increase in size and strength of all those muscles. 
It also offers fairly great difficulty in keeping the balance, 
especially in the beginning. This means a lively interplay of 
all the lower trunk muscles, which adds appreciably to the total 
amount of work, besides being excellent training in coordination. 
The erect vertical position of the trunk is made possible or at any 
rate is favored by the abduction in the hip joint. 

10. Side lunge. The movement is directly to the side, about 
three foot lengths, with the knee bent to nearly right angle and 
pressed sideways as far as possible, the trunk erect and vertical, 
the shoulders level and "square" to' the front. The finał position 
may also be reached by keeping the moving leg straight and 
bending the knee of the stationary leg. 



104 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



Assuming the first 
of the above defini- 
tions, the movement 
consists of flexion, ab- 
duction and rotation 
outward in the hip 
joint, flexion in the 
knee and ankle joints 
of the moving leg 
(left) ; a b d u c tion 
(and extension) in 
the hip joint, exten- 
sion in the knee and 
ankle joint of the sta- 
tionary leg (right). 
When properly done 
there is little or no 
displacement of the 
pelvis, but in most 
cases a slight rotation 
to right and a little 
tilting to the same 
side are apt to occur, 
w i t h corresponding 
twist and bend of the 
spine to left (convex- 
ity to right) . 

The active muscles are, on the left side: at first, the hip joint 
flexors and abductors ; then, as the left foot strikes the floor, the 
hip, knee and ankle joint extensors contract, resisting further 
flexion in these joints by gravity. The hip joint abductors con- 
tinue active throughout. On the right side the hip joint ab- 
ductors help to give the body the initial impetus to the left. After 
the first moment, however, gravity is the chief motor force, while 
the right hip joint adductors and the inverters of the right foot 
contract to keep this foot in firm contact with the floor as the 
left foot receives the greater part of the body weight. The left 
abdominal muscles and erector spinse also contract at the be- 
ginning, while the same muscles on the right side check the 
momentum of the body at the completion of the movement. 

The return is accomplished by the quick contraction of the left 
hip, knee and ankle joint extensors, the right hip joint adductors, 
the right erector spinse and abdominal muscles. 




Fig. 33. 
Side Lunge.* 



*Should be to left to correspond to the text. 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



105 



C. CHARGES AND BACK EXE,RCISES. 

11. Standing forzuard charge. One foot is advanced straight 
ahead about three foot lengths, toe turned forward, knee bent 
to nearly right angle. The other foot is either kept firm or allowed 
to turn on the bali until it is approximately at right angles to the 
advanced foot, then held in firm contact with the floor. The 
trunk is kept straight and inclined 45°, in line with the rear leg. 
The piane of the shoulders remains as in the fundamental stand- 
ing position — ^"sąuare" to the front. The movement, when- 
properly executed according to this definition, and with the left 
foot advanced, consists of : (1) flexion and a little abduction in 
the left hip joint ; (2) flexion in the left knee and ankle joints ; (3) 
(extension) rotation outward and slight abduction in the right 
hip joint; (4) rotation and also a little tilting to right of the 
pelvis; (5) compensatory twist of the spine to left with a slight 
lateral bend to the same side (convexity to right). 

The muscular action is very complex, especially if the arms 
are moved at the same time, as is usually the case. Only the 
merest outline of the action of the principal muscles will be 
attempted. 

(1) When the left foot is lifted the body is allowed to fali 
forward, being started in this direction by the right anterior leg 
and abdominal muscles. The left hip joint fleijęors — psoas, iliacus, 
rectus femoris, etc. — raise the left femur ; the left knee is flexed by 
gravity, the ąuadriceps being relaxed at this stage. (2) When the 
foot strikes the ground the left hip, knee and ankle joint ex- 
tensors contract to check the flexion in these joints. (3) The 
right hip and knee joints tend to flex as the left foot is ad- 
vanced, necessitating moderately strong contraction of the right 
glutei, hamstring muscles and ąuadriceps. The swinging forward 
of the right heel means rotation outward in the right hip joint, 
which is a passive movement produced by the momentum of the 
trunk. It is resisted and finally checked by the inward rotators — 
tensor fascias latae, anterior portions of gluteus medius and 
gluteus minimus.. (4) The right foot is kept firmly on the floor 
by the right hip joint adductors and by the muscles which invert 
the foot — principally tibialis anticus and posticus. (5) The 
whole erector spinse group on each side contracts strongly to 
keep the spine from being flexed by gravity acting with increasing 
leverage as the body is inclined. Their action is suddenly increased 
when the left foot strikes the floor, in order to check the forward 
momentum of the trunk. (6) The slight bend and twist to the 
left of the spine, necessary to compensate for the right rotation 
and inclination of the pelvis, are produced by the stronger eon- 



106 



GYMNASTIC KIKESIOLOGY 



traction of the left back and abdominal muscles and those 
portions of each which rotate the trunk to the left — left serratus 
posticus inferior and lower erector spinse; right serratus posticus 
superior, semispinales dorsi, multifidus and rotatores spinse, 
levatores costarum, right external and left internal obliąue ab- 
dominal muscles. 

The most common faulty tendencies to be resisted in this ex- 
ercise are : (1) Flexion in the right hip and knee joints and in 
the whole back due to insufficient contraction of the respective 
extensors. (2) Raising the heel or outer border of the right foot. 
(3) Excessive contraction of the lower erector spinas occurring 
while the left foot its advancing, leading to hYperextension in 
the lower back and a yertical position (or even a backward 
inclination) of the upper trunk. This really reduces the work 
as w^ell as the difficulty of the exercise. (4) Failure to keep the 
shoulders "sąuare" to the front, allowing them to rotate to the 
right so that their piane remains parallel to the piane of the 
pelyis. This is due to lack of ei¥ort or coórdination in making 
the necessary compensatory twisting of the trunk to left. (5) In- 
clination to left or right of 
the shoulders, associated 
with excessive displacements 
of the pelyis. 

12. Standing obliąue 
charge. Starting with the 
feet at right angle, charge 
diagonally — in the direction 
the toe points — three foot 
lengths ; knee of advanced 
leg bent to right angle, rear 
leg straight, rear foot firmly 
on floor; trunk inclined 
about 45°, in line with the 
rear leg; shoulders "sąuare" 
to the front and bearing the 
same relation to the trunk as 
in - the standing position 
(therefore inchned in the 
same proportion as the 
trunk) . 

The joint mechanism dif- 
fers but slightly from that 
of the forward charge. 

There is moderate abduc- fig. 34. 

tion and slight rotation out- . oblique charge. 




LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



107 



ward in both hip joints : the pelvic rotation and lateral tilting and 
the compensatory twist and bend in the spine are about the 
same. 

The muscular mechanism is also similar to that of the forward 
charge, the chief difference being in the stronger action of the 
hip joint abdiictors of the advancing leg and of the adductors of 
the rear leg. The erector spinse and abdominal muscles on the' 
side opposite to the charge (the upper side) are most active in 
sustaining the weight of the trunk and in checking the momen- 
tum, which is as much in a lateral as in a forward direction. 

f 




FIG. 35. 

ToE-suppoRT Charge Position. 



The common fatilts of the finał position are: (1) insufficient 
abduction in the hip joint of the advancing side, shown by the 
forward position of the knee; (2) flexion in the hip joint of the 
rear leg ; (3) excessive displacements of the pelvis ; (4) hyper- 
extension and excessive lateral bends or twists (or both) in the 
spine. 

13. The toe-support charge position is similar to the position 




108 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



rcached by the forward charge, but instead of one foot (left) 
being moved forward, the other (right) is moved backward with 
the ankle extended and only the toe touching the floor (lightly). 
The stationary forward leg supports practically the whole body 
weight, which is not displaced in any but a downward direction. 

The joint mechanism dififers from that pf the forward charge 
* (aside from the ankle joint extension) in the absence of rotation 
outward in the hip joint of the rear leg. This means less pelvic 
rotation and inclination to right with correspondingly diminished 
spinał twist and bend to left. 

The same muscles are active as in the forward charge, but the 
seąuence and degree of their action is different. The immediate 
and continued strong contraction of the erector spinse group on 
both sides and of the right hip and knee extensors are notable 
features. The left hip, knee and ankle joint extensors also work 
harder than in the forward charge, having tO' sustain the whole 
body weight throughout. 

Owing to the smali amount of support afforded by the rear 
foot the eąuilibrium in this position is more unstable than in the 
forward or the obliąue charge. The fact that the body weight is 
not displaced in any direction (except downward) makes greater 
speed possible in this movement. Thus, while the joint and mus- 
cular mechanism is much the same as in the others, and especially 
the forward charge, the toe-support charge position and the 
movement by which it is reached give even greater opportunity 
than the former for the training of balance, for ąuick, powerful 
and delicately adjusted action of all the muscles of the lower 
trunk and extremity. 

14. The horizontal position on one foot (horizontal half 
standing position). Starting from the toe-support charge po- 
sition, the rear leg is raised and the trunk inclined forward cor- 
respondingly, until the line formed by both is horizontal. 

The movement consists of additional flexion in the hip joint 
(and to a much less extent in the knee and ankle joints) of the 
supporting leg. It is produced chiefly by gravity, aided in the 
beginning by the anterior lower leg muscles (ankle joint flexors) 
and the hip joint flexors of the supporting side, the extensors of 
these joints resisting but being allowed to yield (carefully). The 
hip joint extensors of the free leg as well as the whole erector 
spinse on both sides, and especially the lower portion, contract 
with utniost intensity to keep the rear leg and trunk in line in 
the horizontal position. The displacements of pelvis and spine 
are the same as in the forward charge and the toe-support charge 
position, but less pronounced than in either. The action of the 
back muscles appears to be more eąual on the two sides. 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



109 



The powerful contraction of the lower erector spinae is apt to 
cause excessive hyperextension in the lumbar region, which is al- 
most impossible to eliminate. The great difficulty in keeping the 
balance involves constant and quick yieldings and recoveries on 
the part of all the muscles of the trunk and lower extremity, and 
especially of the supporting leg. The muscular work as well as 
the coórdination reąuired by the exercise are therefore very con- 
siderable, and the ability to do it well represents a good deal of 
strength and a high degree of motor control. 

15. Forward hending of trunk (Fig. 8), already described, is 
almost entirely flexion at the hips ; the thoracic spine is kept ex- 
tended, the lumbar spine is straightened. The movement is pro- 
duced by gravity and the active muscles are the hip joint ex- 
tensors, the whole erector spinse group and the posterior scapular 
muscles. The action of the hip joint extensors and the lower 
erector spinse is ''eccentric/' while the upper erector spinge and 
the scapular muscles remain completely contracted. 

In forzvard-downzi'ard hending (Fig. 9), the flexion in the hip 
joints and lumbar spine proceeds as far as the extensibility of the 
hamstring muscles and lower erector spinse permits. But the 
upper erector spinse and posterior scapular muscles should not 
be allowed to yield. 

The return to the fundamental position is accomplished by the 
"concentric" contraction of the same muscles. 

The higher the arms are held in these movements the greater is 
the weight leverage against which the back muscles have to work. 
This leverage is also increased in proportion to the inclination of 
the trunk, the horizontal position representing the maximum. 
The greater weight leverage, with the added work of the scap- 
ular muscles, increases not only the total amount of muscular 
work but also the difficulty of this type of exercise. The atten- 
tion is more divided and the extra effort reąuired to keep the 
arms high and well back induces an even stronger tendency than 
usual to contract the erector spinse group as a whole. Or, to put 
it the other way, the higher the arms are held and the more the 
trunk is inclined, the more difficult it is to allow the lower erector 
spinse to yield without relaxing the upper portion of this group 
as well as the posterior scapular muscles. When correctly done 
this type of exercise is therefore very valuable for the training it 
gives in localized contraction of the upper back muscles-, a most 
important element in what might be called posturę education. 

16. The prone lying position. The body is approximately 
horizontal, supported under the thighs by a bench or stool ; the 
feet are fixed by another person, by the stall bars, straps or other 
support. 



110 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



Gravity, acting with the greatest possible leverage, tends to 
flex the hip joints and spine and to abduct the scapulse; the 
working muscles are therefore the hip joint extensors and all the 
back muscles, including the scapular adductors and posterior de- 
pressors. All contract with utmost vigor, the action of the lower 
erector spinane being particularly marked and leading to consid- 
erable lumbar hyperextension, which in this case is difficult to 
avoid. 

In forward bending from this position the hip joint extensors 
and lower erector spinse yield to gravity, but the upper back and 
posterior scapular (as well as neck) muscles remain contracted, 
thereby limiting the movement to flexion in the hip joints and 
lumbar spine. In returning to the starting position the muscles 
which yielded shorten again until the extension at the hip is 
'complete. 



The exercise represents the most powerful type of back move- 
ments. Because of the fixation of the legs the localization of the 
work to the posterior muscles is more absolute and the possi- 
bilities for increasing the resistance they have to overcome are 
greater than in any other type of back exercises. The forcible 
contraction of the back muscles tends to straighten minor lateral 
deviations of the spine at the time, and by increasing the tone of 
the muscles to insure greater stability to the spinał column. For 
these reasons the exercise is used in connection with the treat- 
ment of scoliosis. The only objectionable feature is the excessive 




1 



FIG. 36. 



Prone Lying Position. 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



111 



lumbar h3^perextension, but this may be somewhat obviated by 
refraining from raising the trunk above the horizontal position (or 
rather beyond the point where it is in line with the legs). 

17. Stauding alternate leg raising backzvard. The straight 
leg is displaced directly backward as far as possible without in- 
cHning the trunk forward. When the left leg is raised the move- 
ment takes place principally in the right hip joint. (1) As the 
fundamenta! position implies complete extension of the hip joint, 
and as the ilio-femoral ligament prevents absolutely any hyper- 
extension, the leg can move backward only by a tilting forward 
of the pelvis (increasing its obliąuity) combined with a tilting 
to right and a rotation to left on the right femur, in such a way 
that the left hip is moved backward and upward. The total 




Fig. 37. 

Forward Bending fro.m Proxe Lying Position. 



pelvic displacement may then be described as flexion, rotation out- 
ward and abduction in the right hip joint, the right femur being 
the fixed segment. (2) At the same time compensatory changes 
occur in the spine in order to maintain the erect fundamental 
position of the head, chest, shoulders and upper back. The most 
conspicuous of these is the lumbar hyperextension, compensating 
for the forward tilt of the pelvis (flexion in the right hip joint). 
The lateral tilt of the pelvis (abduction in the right hip joint) is 
balanced by a bend to the left in the lower spine (convexity to 
the right), while the backward movement of the left side of the 
pelvis (rotation outward in the right hip joint) is met by a 
twist to the right in the whole spine, most pronounced in the 



112 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



lower thoracic region. (3) Finally, the pelvic displacement 
necessitates a slight abduction and some rotation inward in the 
left hip joint, if the left leg is to move directly backward with 
the toe pointed in the same direction. 

Muscular mechanism. (1) The left femur is kept extended 
(against the tendency of gravity to flex it), is abducted and 
rotated inward by the left hamstring muscles, glutei and tensor 
fascise latas. (2) The pelvic displacement, i.e. the flexion, 
abduction, and' rotation outward in the right hip joint, is in part 
produced by the right psoas and iHacus, sartorius, rectus femoris, 
pectineus, etc, the right tensor fascise latse and glutei; in part 
by the erector spinas and abdominal muscles, those on the left 
side predominating. (3) The last two groups are of course 
also responsible for the lateral bend of the spine, while the 
extreme lumbar hyperextension is brought about by contraction 
of the lower erectór spinse on both sides. (4) The rotation of 
the pelvis to the left and backward — equivalent to trunk twisting 
to right — involves also the rotators of the trunk to right, viz., 
the right serratus posticus inferior, the right lower erector 
spinae and the right internal obliąue abdominal muscle; the left 
semi-spinales dorsi, multifidus spinse, rotatores spinse, levatores 
costarum and the left external obliąue abdominal muscle. (5) In 
keeping the pelvis steady on the right femur there is constant 
interplay between the right hip joint abductors and adductors, 
flexors and extensors, in addition to the work many of these have 
to do as motor muscles. The right lower leg and foot muscles 
are similarly active. 

The movement and the position reached by it are used chiefly 
as a balance exercise and undeniably answer this purpose very 
well. The generał arching of the back is also apt to induce a 
forced erect posturę in the upper body with good chest expansion, 
but the excessive lumbar hyperextension which is the main 
feature of this arching makes its value as a generał class exercise 
at least ąuestionable. 

D. ABDOMINAL EXERCISES. 

18. Standing alternate leg Hinging forward. As the name im- 
plies, first one leg then the other is moved ąuickly forward-up- 
ward as high as possible and with straight knee. No position is 
held at the end of the upward swing, the recoil marking the be- 
ginning of the return movement. At the changes from one leg to 
the other, hpwever, the fundamental position is held for a moment. 
The head and upper back should not be allowed to bend forward 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



113 



as the leg rises, and the tendency to bend the knee of the sup- 
porting leg should be resisted. The left leg will be assumed to be 
the moving leg. 

The joint mechanism of this movement involves (1) as much 
flexion in the left hip joint as the length and elasticity of the left 
hamstring muscles permit ; (2) flexion of the pelvis on the trunk, 
that is, a tilting of the pelvis to a more horizontal position. This can 
be done only by a straightening of the lumbar spine and by com- 
pensatory movements in the right hip and knee joints; (3) if the 
extension in both hip joints is complete at the outset, there can 
be no further movement in the right joint to allow the flexion of 
the pelvis. If it is not, the pelvis moves on the right femur until 
the ilio-femoral ligament is tense and the extension in the right 
hip joint is complete. Any further flexion of the pelvis on the 
trunk necessitates flexion in the right knee joint, and this nearly 
always occurs to a greater or less extent, if the leg flinging is 
vigorous enough to bring the foot above waist level. (4) As 
soon as the left foot leaves the ground the weight which it sup- 
ported must be transferred to the right foot. This is done by 
a slight shifting of the pelvis to the right, and involves a cor- 
responding amount of adduction or rather hyperadduction in the 
right hip joint. 

The muscles active in the movement are (1) the left hip joint 
flexors, principally the psoas, iliacus-and rectus femoris ; (2) the 
abdominal muscles. These always contract whenever the hip 
joint flexors, even on one side, are active. The functional as- 
sociation between the two sets is analogous to that between the 
deltoid and supraspinatus on one hand, the trapezius and ser- 
ratus magnus on the other. The hip joint flexors in their efforts 
to draw the femur forward-upward also tend to tip the pelvis 
forward, that is, to increase its obliąuity. The abdominal muscles 
do just the opposite, viz. flex the pelvis on the trunk, making its 
piane approach nearer the horizontal. They are therefore fixators 
of the pelvis against the puli of the hip joint flexors. In this 
capacity the abdominal muscles may be said to do more than their 
duty : they puli the anterior margin of the pelvis upward, and so 
increase the rangę of movement of the femur in an upward direc- 
tion. This tilting of the pelvis begins long before the limit of 
flexion in the hip joint has been reached. Another way of look- 
ing at it js to consider the abdominal muscles and the hip joint 
flexors parts of one system or muscular mechanism serving the 
purpose of flexing the two segments — pelvis and femur — on the 
trunk and always working together in the accomplishment of this 
purpose. (3) In the effort to flex the pelvis on the trunk the 
abdominal muscles are aided by the hip joint extensors — prin- 



114 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



cipally the gluteus maximus and the hamstring muscles. Those 
on the right side contract actively, while those on the left side are 
being subjected to strong tension, owing to the flexion of the left 
hip joint while the left knee is kept extended, and thereby exert 
a powerful puli on the posterior portions of the pelvis. When, 
through the united action of all, the pelvis has been flexed on 
the trunk (and extendęd on the right femur) until no further 
movement in the right hip joint can take place (the ilio-femoral 
ligament being stretched), continued action of the abdominal 
muscles and hip joint extensors, aided by the momentum 
of the left leg and by gravity, will flex the right knee joint (the 
ąuadriceps, strongly contracted from the beginning, has to yield 
a little). This allows a forward movement of the right femur 
and a corresponding amount of additional flexion of the pelvis 
on the trunk. (4) In the slight movement of the pelvis to the 
right when the left foot leaves the ground the abductors of the 
right hip joint — glutei and tensor fascise latse — contract, but yield 
to gravity until eąuilibrium on the right foot has been established. 
After that, they, as well as the adductors, maintain static con- 
traction, steadying the pelvis on the femur and preventing or re- 
ducing lateral swaying. The action of the right extensors against 
the ilio-femoral ligament (and flexor muscles), already described 
as aiding in the flexion of the pelvis on the trunk, prevents or 
checks antero-posterior oscillations. 

The main features of this exercise may be summed up as fol- 
lows: (1) Extreme stretching of the hamstring muscles and 
other structures on the posterior aspect of the thigh and knee of 
the rnoving side in order to attain as complete flexion in the hip 
joint as possible with straight knee. (2) Forced complete exten- 
sion in the hip joint of the supporting side. (3) Considerable 
flexion of the pelvis on the trunk, associated with forced flexion 
in one hip joint and leading to complete extension in the other. 

(4) Straightening and even reversal of the lumbar curve, oc- 
curring as an essential part of flexion of the pelyis on the trunk. 

(5) Yigorous contraction of the abdominal muscles, always in- 
duced by efiforts to flex the hip joint. (6) Prompt, yigorous and 
orderly interplay of the flexors and extensors, abductors and ad- 
ductors of the hip joint on the supporting side involved in the re- 
distribution of weight at the change from one foot to the other and 
in maintaining the balance during the progress of the movement. 
(7) Lastly, the yielding and stretching of the lower erector 
spinse, necessary in the flexion of the lumbar spine, while the 
upper erector spince and the posterior scapular muscles remain 
in complete contraction, keeping the upper part of the body erect 
under conditions of unusual difficulty. 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



115 




19. Standing alternate knee upward 
bending is like alternate leg flinging 
forward in all respects except that the 
knee on the moving side is flexed at 
the same time and in the same propor- 
tion as the hip joint on that side. This 
reduces the passive tension on the 
hamstring muscles of that side to a 
minimum and so allows complete 
flexion in the hip joint, limited only 
by the contact of the thigh with the 
abdomen. When the movement is 
done slowly and the position is held as 
a balance exercise, the right angle 
flexion at hip and knee is customary. 
The main object is, then to cultivate 
ąuick and orderly interplay between 
the flexors and extensors, abductors 
and adductors of the hip joint, and of 
the muscles of the lower leg which 
steady the ankle joint, all on the sup- 
porting side, as well as of all the lower 
trunk muscles, in order to maintain a 
steady balance on one foot. But the 
action of the abdominal muscles and 

the resulting flexion of the pelvis on the trunk through straight- 
ening of the lumbar spine still remain prominent features of the 
exercise. 

20. Knee upzmrd bending, and leg raising from the hanging 
position. When one leg is moved at a time the mechanism of 
these, as regards the lower body, is the sarnę as in the correspond- 
ing movements from the standing position. But the hanging 
position eliminates the balance element, insures a straight upper 
back, fixes the chest in an expanded position and so makes 
possible more energetic action of the abdominal muscles and hip 
joint flexors of the moving side. 

When both legs are raised (straight) the work of the hip joint 
flexors and abdominal muscles is much increased owing to the 
greater weight leverage as well as to the increased resistance 
offered by the hamstring muscles on both sides. The rangę of 
flexion of the pelvis on the trunk is somewhat greater than when 
one leg is raised, as the limitation involved in keeping one hip 
joint extended is absent. 

In double knee upzvard bending the abdominal muscles and 
hip joint flexors have less weight to lift and encounter less 



Fig. 38. 

Alternate Knee Upward 
Bending. 



116 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



resistance from the hamstring muscles. Because of the latter, 
greater flexion of the femur on the pelvis and of the pelvis on 
the tnink is possible, and the motor muscles are therefore able 
to shorten more completely. This means as complete flexion in 
the lumbar spine as this region is capable of. The hanging 
position induces a fairly straight upper thoracic spine and good 
chest expansion. Here, then, all conditions are favorable for 
improving the postura! relations of the whole trunk, including 
the shoulder and hip regions. Most of the muscles responsible 
for the maintenance of good posturę in the dif¥erent regions are 
given opportunity to contract through their whole rangę and 
against a considerable resistance. In the case of the scapular 
depressors, rotators downward and adductors, while they are 
not shortened completely, their contraction is sustained for sonie 
time.' The antagonistic structures, muscular and fibrous, are 
stretched. The mobility in the joints of the spine, chest and 
shoulder girdle, as well as in the shoulder joint proper, is culti- 
yated in directions in which it tends to become limited through 
lack of opportunity or necessity for such extreme movements in 
the ordinary activities of daily life. This type of exercise is also 
one of the most effective for increasing the strength and tone of 
the abdominal muscles, as well as for reducing, or at least retard- 
ing, the accumulation of adipose tissue so freąuently associated 
Avith relaxed abdominal walls in persons of sedentary habits. At 
the same time the abdominal muscles work under mechanical con- 
ditions entirely different from those of the standing position, 
such as fixation of chest, instead of pelvis, changed relation to 
gravity, association with the hip joint flexors instead of the ex- 
tensors. Therefore exercises of this type faił to give much 
training in the kind of coordination, weight distribution and 
balance necessary for a good carriage in the lower part of the 
body. These are best acąuired through the practice of exercises 
done from the fundamental standing position. 

21. Opposite sitting hachi^ard bending of the trunk. From 
the sitting position with knees straight and feet fixed (or, if the 
knees are bent, with thighs fixed), the trunk is inclined back- 
ward a varying amount. The movement should be done only at 
the hips (extension), without any lumbar hyperextension. The 
upper back is kept straight, the head well back and the chest 
expanded. 

The extension in the hip joint is caused by gravity and is re- 
sisted by the hip joint flexors — psoas and iliacus, sartorius, pec- 
tineus, etc. The first effect of their contraction is to fix the pelvis 
and lower lumbar spine, thereby tending to localize the movement 
to the upper lumbar and lower thoracic spine. This tendency is 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



117 



favored from the outset by the strong contraction of the lower 
erector spinse, induced by efforts to keep the upper back straight ; 
also by the direct forward puli of the psoas on the lumbar 
vertebr?e, and by gravity. The proper localization of the move- 
ment to (extension in) the hip joint demands, therefore, in the 
first place prompt and vigorous contraction of the abdominal 
muscles to neutralize excessive action of the lower erector spinse 
and the ilio-psoas and to resist gravity; secondly, ability to allow 
the psoas and other hip joint flexors to yield; finally, ability to 
relax, partly at least, the lower erector spinse, without inducing 
relaxation of the upper portions of this group and the posterior 




Fig. 39. 

Opposite Sitting Backward Bending of the Trunk. 



scapular muscles. If these upper back (and posterior neck) 
muscles fail to act, the effect of the puli of the abdominal mus- 
cles and the associated contraction of the pectorals and anterior 
neck muscles will be to depress the chest, to flex the upper back, 
neck and head, to draw the shoulders forward and upward — 
literally to curl up the upper part of the body. This, by reducing 
the weight leverage and giving the abdominal muscles the ad- 
vantage, makes the movement easier, and is the most common 
fault in the execution. 

To induce the right kind of muscular effort and so insure 
proper localization of the movement it is of advantage, at first, 
to start with abdomen retracted, then to bend the head backward 
(with chin drawn in), at the same time takmg a deep breath. 



118 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



It is well not to allow the movement to proceed far enough to 
induce excessive contraction of the anterior muscles, with visible 
tremors, as this nearly always leads to involuntary relaxation of 
the upper back muscles. When properly done, that is, from the 
hips, with the whole back straight, the chest expanded and the 
head in fundamental position, the movement is not only one of 
the most powerful abdominal exercises, but also gives excellent 
training in the kind of muscular control reąuired for a good car- 
riage of both the upper and lower part of the body. 

22. Leg raising from the lying position. Lying fiat on the 
back, with hands ''behind" the neck or stretched out '*above" 
the head, the legs are raised, with straight knees, to the vertical 
position. The movement consists of flexion in the hip joint, 
supplemented by flexion of the pelvis on the trunk — in .other 
words, flexion in the lower spine. The latter is preceded, dur- 
ing the first part of the movement, by increased lumbar hyper- 
extension associated with a slight forward tilting of the pelvis. 

The active muscles are the hip joint flexors — psoas, iliacus, 
rectus femoris, etc, and the abdominal muscles. As in ''Opposite 
sitting backward bending of trunk" the first effect of the con- 
traction of the hip joint flexoTs, and particularly of the psoas- 
iliacus, is a tendency to tilt the pelvis forward (increase its 
obliąuity), shown by the increased arching "forward" of the lower 

spine. This is soon 
checked and re- 
versed by the con- 
traction of the ab- 
dominal muscles. 
It may even be 
entirely avoided if 
these muscles are 
brought into 
strong action ' at 
the outset and are 
aided for a brief 
moment by the hip 
joint extensors. 

To prevent any 
depression of the 
chest by the puli of 
the abdominal mus- 
cles it is of advan- 
tage to take a deep 
Fig. 40. breathatthe 

Leg Raising from the Lying Position. beginning of the 




LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



119 



movement, exhale when the vertical position of the legs has been 
reached, then inhale again as the legs are lowered. This, how- 
ever, increases the tendency to arch the lower back during the 
first stage of the rise and the last stage of the return. In some 
cases there is difficulty in keeping the head and arms in contact 
with the floor during these stages, when the weight leverage is 
greatest. This may be obviated by grasping some solid object. 

23. The prone falling position. (Front leaning rest, Fig. 24.) 
The muscular action in the upper trunk and shoulder region has 
already been described. In the lower part of the body gravity 
tends to flex the knees, to keep the hip joints extended and to 
hyperextend the lumbar spine. This necessitates contraction of 
the ąuadriceps extensor and the abdominal muscles. Associated 
action of the hip joint flexors, often excessive, is apt to cause a 
bend at the hips. When this is the case the hip joint extensors 
must also be brought into action. The hip joint is then efifectually 
locked and the fuli force of the abdominal muscles can be brought 
to bear on the lower spine in a way to prevent hyperextension. 
After the proper muscular control has been acąuired excessive 
action of the hip joint flexors does not occur and action of the 
extensors is therefore not necessary, gravity being sufficient to 
keep the hip joint extended. 

E. LATERAL TRUNK EXERCISES. 

24. Standing alternate leg ńinging sidezuays. The ąuick 
extreme movement of the straight leg, say the left, directly in 
the lateral piane, will be assumed. The upper trunk remains 
erect, the shoulders level. The main joint mechanism is as 
follows: (1) extreme abduction in the left hip joint; (2) a 
tilting of the pelvis to the right, the crest of the left ilium being 
the highest point (this movement takes place in the right hip 
joint and is abduction in this joint, the right femur being the 
fixed, and the pelvis the moving segment) ; (3) a compensatory 
lateral bend of the spine, convexity to right, most pronounced 
in the lumbar region. 

The principal muscles concerned in producing the movement 
and keeping the balance are: (1) The abductors of the left hip 
joint — tensor fascise latse, glutei ; (2) the abductors of the right 
hip joint, assisting in tilting the pelvis ; (3) the flexors and ex- 
tensors of the right hip joint, keeping the pelvis steady on the 
right femur as regards the antero-posterior piane; (4) the ab- 
dominal muscles and lower erector spinse on the. left side, being 
the chief factors in the tilting of the pelvis and in producing the 



120 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



lateral bend of the spine. Their contraction is preceded by a mo- 
mentary contraction of the corresponding muscles on the right 
side to check the displacement of the hips and lower trunk to 
right, necessary to balance the body on the right foot; (5) the 
right knee extensors are also strongly active, the left more mod- 
erately. The same is true of the lower leg (and foot) muscles of 
the respective sides. 

The alternate movement is a good all-round exercise with the 
features of waist or lateral trunk movements predominating. It 
is capable of being done with good, erect posturę in the upper 
part of the body, demands quick, successive weight adjustment 
and so ofifers at least moderate difficulty in keeping the balance. 
This may be increased by doing the exercise slowly, or by hold- 
ing the abducted 
position of the leg 
a varying length of 
time. 

25. Standing 
side-hending 
of trunk (to left). 
W h e n correctly 
and completely 
dorie the exercise 
involves the whole 
rangę of lateral 
movement in the 
thoracic and lum- 
bar spine and in- 
cludes also a dis- 
placement of the 
pelvis to the right, 
equivalent to ab- 
duction in the left 
hip joint and ad- 
duction i n the 
right. The piane 
of the shoulders 
should not be dis- 
turbed, that is, the 
movement should 
•be directly to the 
Fig. 41. side, without twist- 

siDE bending of Trunk.* ing or forward 




*Should be to left to correspond to the text. 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



121 



bending in the upper spine, backward bending in tlie lower, or 
flexion at the hips. 

The abdominal muscles, lower erector spinse and hip joint ab- 
ductors on the left side contract for an instant at the beginning. 
After that gravity is the motor force and the same muscles on 
the riglit side act "eccentrically/' regulating the speed and de- 
termining the piane of the movement. Then, by shortening, 
they raise the trunk to the fundamental position. The hip joint 
extensors are moderately active throughout. The upper erector 
spinse and posterior scapular muscles are also in a 
State of greater activity than in the erect position, as the changes 
in weight distribution disturb their ordinary relations. The 
higher the arms are held the more this is the case. 




Fig. 42 

Side Bending from the Side-Lying Position.* 



26. Side bending from the side-lying position. The support 
is placed under one thigh, say the left, and the feet are fixed. 
The body should be approximately horizontal, arched a little to 
the right (upward), the piane of the shoulders and hips vertical, 
the hip and knee joints extended. The movement from this po- 
sition — side-bending to left — is distributed over the whole spine 
and continues until the head is near the floor. 

The principal muscles active in maintaining the position against 
gravity are the same as in ''standing side-bending," viz. the 

*Sliould be to left to correspond to the text. 



122 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



abdominal muscles, the erector spinse and its upper prolongations, 
and the hip joint abductors, all on the right side; also the hip 
and knee joint extensors on both sides. During the bending these 
muscles while yielding to gravity, are nevertheless in strong 
action ("eccentric"), guiding the movement in the lateral piane. 
During the return movement they have to contract with ex- 
treme vigor owing to the great weight leverage. This, with the 
very considerable amount of work reąuired of the scapular ad- 
ductors and depressors makes the exercise one of the most pow- 
erful of the lateral trunk movements. 

27. Side falling position (side leaning rest). The straight 
and rigid body, with the (left) side toward the floor is supported 
on the left hand and foot. The left shoulder joint is in a position 
of abduction, the left scapula at best is slightly rotated upward, 
but its position varies according to the strength and control of the 
scapular muscles possessed by the performer. The rest of the 
body should be as nearly as possible in the fundamental position. 

Grayity tends to produce flexion in the left elbow, adduction 
in the left shoulder joint, elevation with some adduction and 
rotation downward of the left scapula, a bend to right in the spine 
(convexity to left), abduction in the right hip joint, adduction 
in the left. There is also a tendency to flexion in both hip joints 
and to forward bending of the upper spine. 

The principal active muscles are : the left triceps ; the left 
shoulder joint abductors — deltoid, supraspinatus and long head 
of biceps; all the left scapular muscles, and especially the lower 
serratus magnus ; the left erector spinse and abdominal muscles ; 
the left hip joint abductors and the right adductors; also the hip 
joint extensors on both sides. The upper erector spinge and pos- 
terior neck muscles are active on both sides, the right more than 
the left. There is some difficulty, at first, in keeping the body 
from rolling over forward or backward. The balance is main- 
tained by interplay between the obliąue abdominal and back 
muscles which rotate the trunk to right and left respectively, as 
well as between the left pectorals and serratus magnus on one 
hand and the left latissimus, posterior deltoid, trapezius and 
rhomboids on the other. 

The total muscular work and the difficulty in keeping the 
balance may be increased progressively by moving the free 
(right) arm to higher levels, and still more by raising the right 
leg. 

28. Side holding (left side up). Grasping the stall bars or 
similar apparatus with the hands about three or four feet apart, 
the left directly above the right, the body is swung out sideways 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



123 



to an approximately horizontal position and held there as long 
as the strength of the performer permits. Or the exercise may 
be done as »a rhythmical movement, without attempting to hołd 
the position at the end of the up-swing. In either case the mus- 
cular action is of the same kind, differing only in degree. The 
horizontal position, representing the maximum effort, will be 
assumed for purposes of analysis. 

Both shoulder joints are then abducted and both scapulae ro- 
tated upward. Gravity tends to carry the abduction in the left 
shoulder joint and the rotation upward of the left scapula still 
further, while on the right side the opposite tendency prevails. 
The spine tends to bend to right (convexity to left), while in the 
hip joints there is tendency to adduction in the left, abduction 
in the right and flexion in both. 

The muscles which produce the movement, hołd the position 
and resist in the return are: (1) the left shoulder joint adductors 
— pectoralis major, latissimus and teres major; (2) the down- 
ward rotators and depressors of the left scapula — rhomboids, 
lower trapezius and pectoralis minor; (3) the right shoulder 
joint abductors — deltoid, supraspinatus and long head of biceps ; 
(4) the upward rotators of the right scapula — serratus magnus 
and trapezius (the depressors of the right scapulas are also 
active) ; (5) the left abdominal muscles and erector spinse; (6) 
the left tensor fascise latae and the right hip joint adductors; (7) 
the glutei and hamstring muscles on both sides. Besides these, 
the right triceps is strongly active opposing the tendency of 
gravity to flex the right elbow. The left triceps also has to 
contract, as the strong puli of the left shoulder joint adductors 
and the associated contraction of the left biceps tend to flex the 
left elbow. The body is kept from swinging forward or back- 
ward (toward the wali) by timely contraction of all the upper 
back and posterior shoulder muscles, or the abdominal and 
pectoral muscles, respectively. 

At the beginning of the movement, with the trunk bent to the 
right and the left arm elevated, the left side of the chest is forcibly 
expanded. During the ascent, and particularly when the body 
is in or near the horizontal position, the puli of the left shoulder 
joint adductors and the scapular depressors on both sides makes 
the chest expansion generał. 

The exercise demands considerable strength and coordination, 
but if the momentum is properly managed by swinging the left 
leg first toward the wali and then outward, it is not as severe nor 
as difficult as might at first appear. Keeping the arms absolutely 
rigid and the right shoulder Iow throughout are also essential 
factors in successful performance. 



124 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



29. Standing alternate trunk twisting. As this is most com- 
monly done, little or no restriction is demanded as to where the 
movement is to take place. It often includes the cervical, as well 
as the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spine, and nearly always 
rotation of the pelvis. The latter involves movements of op- 
posite character in all the joints of the two lower extremities. 
If the twisting is to left, there is flexion, rotation inward and ad- 
duction in the left hip joint, extension, rotation outward and ad- 
duction in the right; flexion in the right knee and ankle joints, 
extension in the left; eversion of the right foot, inversion of 
the left. 

Here the *'pure" type of trunk, twisting will be assumed. This 
may be defined as taking place entirely above the hips, with the 
head remaining immovable relative to the shoulders. Such a 
moyement employs the whole rangę of rotation in the thoracic 
spine, as well as the smali amount possible in the lumbar region, 
while the cervical spine, the pelvis, the hip, knee and ankle joints 
remain fixed in the fundamental position b}^ conscious muscular 
effort. When thus restricted the movement rarely exceeds 45°. 

Besides the obliąue abdominal and back muscles directly con- 
cerned in the production of the moyement (enumerated several 
times in connection with movements previously described) prac- 
tically all the muscles of the hip region and lower extremities, 
including the inverters of the feet, contract in the effort to fix 
the pelvis and legs. The scapular adductors and posterior de- 
pressors on both sides are also reąuired to act yigorously to re- 
sist the strong tendency to independent displacements of the 
shoulders. 

The localized movement, especially when done ąuickly and 
when the position reached by it is held a moment, although of 
smaller rangę, demands more generał and more vigorous mus- 
cular work, and a great deal more coórdination, than the more 
extensive, less localized type in which no attempt is made to keep 
the hips immoyable. In the former the action of the abdominal 
muscles is particularly marked, so much, in fact, that the breath- 
ing, both diaphragmatic and costal, may be somewhat impeded. 
The arches of the feet are subjected to less strain, owing to the 
strong contraction of the tibialis anticus and posticus, as well as 
of the plantar muscles, all associated with the effort to fix the 
legs and pelvis. After some practice the exercise may, however, 
be properly localized without much muscular effort below the 
hips, at least when done slowly. 

30. Walking, running and jumping. For the mechanics of 
locomotion the reader is referred to the writings of those in- 
vestigators who have made a detailed study of the subject — 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



125 



Marey, Demeny, Fisher, Fuchs and others. (See Bibliography. ) 
Here only the most obvious features of the joint and muscular 
mechanism of these forms of movement will be considered. 

Walking. Starting at the point when the left foot leaves the 
ground, with the left hip, knee and ankle joint more or less ex- 
tended, the seąuence of movements is about as follows: (1) 
Flexion and slight rotation outward in the left hip joint and 
flexion in the left knee joint. This is probably chiefly a passive 
movement (the whole leg acting as a jointed pendulum), aided 
perhaps by a slight contraction of the hip joint flexors and out- 
ward rotators — psoas and ilicus, rectus femoris, sartorius, pec- 
tineus, etc, and of the knee joint flexors. The ankle joint has to 
be slightly flexed by muscular action iri order to allow the toe to 
elear the ground. (2) In the meanwhile extension and slight 
rotation inward have taken place in the right hip joint, as well as 
some adduction, shown by the swaying of the hips to right when 
the right leg receives the weight. The principal active muscles 
here are the glutei, tensor fascise latse and hamstring muscles. 
(3) The right knee joint may flex somewhat when the leg receives 
the weight, but this is checked, and the joint more or less extended 
by the contraction of the ąuadriceps. (4) The right ankle joint 
has been flexed, partly by the momentum of the body, partly by 
active contraction of the anterior lower leg muscles. (5) The 
pelvis, besides being displaced to the right in the settling of the 
weight on the right hip (equivalent to adduction in the right hip 
joint) has also rotated to the right on the right femur, so that the 
left hip is a little in advance of the right when the left foot strikes 
the ground. This rotation of the pelvis may also be expressed in 
terms of rotation inward in the right hip joint and necessitates 
the outward rotation in the left hip joint mentioned above. (6) 
When the right hip joint has reached complete extension a fur- 
ther movement of the body in front of the right leg involves a 
forward inclination of the pelvis (increase of its obliąuity). (7) 
The forward inclination and rotation to the right of the pelvis 
cali for compensatory hyperextension and twisting to left of the 
spine, in order to keep the upper trunk erect and the piane of the 
shoulders ''sąuare" to the front. The forward swing of the right 
arm and the backward swing of the left, if extensive, may even 
induce a change in piane of the shoulders opposite to that of the 
hips, so that the right shoulder is slightly in front of the left. 
This makes the left twist of the spine more pronounced. Often 
there is also a depression of the left shoulder, involving a bend to 
left (convexity to right) of the spine. The erector spinse group 
and the abdominal muscles are responsible for these adjustments, 
the muscles on the right side in the case of the former being most 



126 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



active, while in the case of the latter the right external and left 
interna! obliąue work together. The swaying to right of the pel- 
vis is necessary in the transfer of the weight to the right foot, and 
involves action, for the purpose of support, of the right abdominal 
and erector spinse muscles, as well as of the right hip joint 
abductors. 

The different phases of each stride in walking vary consider- 
ably with the freąuency and length of the stride. Thus, for ex- 
ample, in slow sauntering the knee of the advancing leg is com- 
pletely extended when the foot strikes the ground, while in some 
forms of rapid walking it may remain partly flexed at that mo- 
ment. In the so-called flexion gait, cultivated or natural, it is 
not completely extended at any time. The lateral oscillation 
and rotation of the pelvis, and the compensatory movements of 
spine, shoulders and arms, are also subject to variations with 
individual peculiarities of structure and habits of movement. It 
is these individual variations in the elements of the complete step 
that make the gait of each individual characteristic, and they in- 
dicate, perhaps better than any other- single form of movement, 
the degree of subjective motor control and the generał motor 
habits of the individual. In gymnastic marching, and especially 
in certain forms of balance marching and steps, it is possible to 
analyze, to some extent, these elements and by emphasizing some 
or "toning down" others, to improve the gait. Turning up the toe 
of the advancing foot excessively, may be helped by practicing 
a step in which the bali of the foot strikes the floor first, or in 
which the sole remains parallel to the floor; excessive lateral 
sway and rotation of the pelvis, or the compensatory swinging 
and depression of the shoulders, may be made less pronounced 
by balance marching in which these movements of the pelvis and 
shoulders are reduced to a minimum. Ali these exercises tend to 
improve the indiyiduaFs sense of balance, habits of weight dis- 
tribution and localization of movement, and if supplemented by 
constant attention and persistent application outside of the gym- 
nasium, may be expected to produce appreciable results in the way 
of permanent improvement of the gait. 

Running. This form of locomotion, like walking, presents so 
many different varieties that it would be difficult to describe a 
typical style. It differs from walking essentially in that the 
body leaves the ground entirely at each step, and in that the ex- 
cursions of the legs and the oscillations of the pelvis and 
shoulders are, in generał, more extensive. In fast running prac- 
tically all the muscles of the body are in action, most pronounced 
in the case of the extensors of the hip, knee and ankle, the flexors 
of the hip, and the erector spinse and abdominal muscles. 



LOWER TRUNK AND HIP REGION 



127 



Jumping. Here again there are a number of styles or types, 
differing widely in detail, from the simple gymnastic jump, in 
which the trunk remains vertical and facing forward, to the very 
complex forms of running high jump used in athletic competition, 
in which the trunk is inclined backward and a more or less sharp 
or complete turn is executed at the moment of passing the bar. 

In all forms, however, the spring consists of a preliminary 
flexion of the knee, hip and ankle joints of one side, followed by 
a ąuick extension in these joints, and a flexion in the hip joint 
and sometimes the knee joint of the other side. This is in turn 
foliowed by flexion in the joints of the springing leg, accom- 
panied or not, as the case may be, by a twist, or turn, of the whole 
body toward the side of this leg. 

Jumping, even, more than running, involves very generał miis- 
cular action, the back, hip, knee and ankle extensors, the hip 
joint flexors and the abdominal muscles being the principal 
groups. The action is of a more sudden and extreme character 
and more deHcately adjusted, demanding a relatively higher de- 
gree of coordination. Here judgment of distance and momentum, 
correct timing and seąuence of effort are perhaps more essential 
for successful performance than in any other form of movement. 
But because of the intermittent and violent character of the mus- 
cular work, jumping, from a physiological standpoint, is not as 
useful a generał exercise as running. 



SUMMARY. 



In the introduction the generał character of gymnastics was 
contrasted with that of the otlier principal forms of exercise used 
as agents in ph3-sical education. The effectiveness of gymnastics 
in certain directions, such as eąuahzing growth and development, 
favoring correct anatomical relations and increasing the func- 
tional activity of the great vital organs, was assumed to be gen- 
erally recognized. It was further claimed that gymnastics of the 
right kind may be made one of the most effectiYe agents in motor 
education, and particularly in that phase which has to do with the 
carriage and management of the parts of the body with reference 
to each other, and of the body as a whole with reference to ex- 
ternal forces and things in a purely subjective manner, such as 
its position in space, its relation and adjustment to gravity, in- 
ertia and momentum — involving weight distribution and balance ; 
direction, speed and accuracy of movement; timing and proper 
distribution of effort. The degree and ąuahty of this -subjective 
motor control is suggested by such terms as bearing, poise, physi- 
cal presence, grace, agihty. Its value as a means of expression, 
as a factor in the social relations of hfe and as a basis for physi- 
cal efficiency is variously estimated and on the whole probably 
underrated. 

In the analysis of the gymnastic exercises it was freąuently 
pointed out how apparently slight differences in the definition of 
an exercise, or emphasis on some particular feature, may change 
it from an . easy, insignificant movement, reąuiring relatively 
slight expenditure of energy and offering little or no difficulty of 
coordination, to one calling for yigorous, discriminating, well-co- 
ordinated muscular efforts, usually of a kind tending directly or 
indirectly to preserve erect carriage and to improve faulty pos- 
tural relations. Indeed, conscious effort to maintain good pos- 
turę under all conditions is (or should be) one of the chief char- 
acteristics of gymnastic movements. It is one of the most im- 
portant elements of that definiteness of detail which distinguishes 
the gymnastic movement from its non-gymnastic prototype and 
which makes the former so much more difficult than the latter. 

1. Definiteness of gymnastic exercises. li the objects of gym- 
nastics are to include such things as refinement of subjective 
motor control and improvement of pos^ural relations these objects 
can hardly be attained in any marked degree by the practice of 
vague, ill-defined, relatively complex movements, executed in a 
listless, haphazard, slovenly or at best mechanical, oscillatory 
manner. It is not reasonable to expect that work which does not 
cali for concentration of attention and effort,. for discrimination 



su MM ARY 



129 



and judgment, shall cultivate these powers and ąualities in the 
doer and lead to habits of efficient action. To do this the gym- 
nastic movements must be selected, defined and presented in a 
way to focus attention, to exercise the discrimirrative and inhibi- 
tive powers, and to elicit vigoroiis, clean-cut, well-adjusted motor 
reactions. Moreover, to suit the needs of the majority they must 
embody certain essential features, relating to the carriage of the 
body, the ąuantity, kind, yariety, distribution and continuity of 
the muscular work. To be capable of presęntation to and execu- 
tion in unison by a number of individuals, and in a manner to 
bring out their fuli effects, they must be relatively simple, or if 
complex, must be capable of subdivision into simpler elements, 
each of which may be presented and executed as a complete 
movement. They must be sharply defined in every detail, such 
as piane or direction, kind, extent and speed of movement; parts 
of the body involved ; the exact relation of these parts in the 
position reached by the movement ; relative length of time spent 
in moving and in holding the position — rhythm ; the muscles or 
groups of muscles brought into action and the character of their 
action. With this exactness of definition there must be insistence 
on promptness, precision and unison in the execution. Whether 
the exercises are done singly on command or repeated rhythmic- 
ally, each movement (or each part of a compound or alternatmg 
movement) must be completed, and the position mąrking its com- 
■pletion held for a brief space of time. before the return, or the 
next part, is begun. This involves checking momentum and over- 
coming inertia at every point, introduces the element of balance 
and redistribution of weight more freąuently or more promi- 
nently, compels more complete, powerful and varied muscular 
action and gives the pupil an opportunity to note and understand 
what he is doing, as well as the teacher a chance to help him, 
if necessary. On the degree of definiteness in all these respects 
depends, to a great extent, the effectiveness of gymnastic exer- 
cises in the directions already indicated. Lacking this, gymnastic 
work is justified only on grounds of hygienic necessity, is merely 
a rather uninteresting, monotonous way of getting muscular ex- 
ercise when nothing more attractive is available. 

This element of definiteness in gymnastic movements, on 
which their special effectiveness so largely depends, involves a 
number of closely related factors, some of the most important of 
which are : localization of movement, localization of muscular 
contraction, fixation, the supporting function of muscles. 

2. Localization of movernent. With this is meant the con- 
finement of movement to certain specified regions, the limitation 
of the number of segments or joints taking part, and usually the 



130 



GYMXASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



emphasis or completeness of one kind of movement to the ex- 
clusion of all others. As regards joint mechanism, therefore, 
localization is equivalent to simplicity and definiteness of move- 
ment. Thus, for example, the gymnastic movement forward 
bending of trunk takes place- chiefly in the hip joints, while the 
spine, chest and shoulder girdle remain in fundamental position ; 
in trunk twisting the spine is the region of locahzation, while the 
pelvis and lower extremities remain immovable; in arm bending 
the completeness of flexion in the elbow and of rotation outward 
in the shoulder joint, with a minimum amount of abduction or 
hyperextension in the shoulder joint and displacement of the 
• scapula, are the essential features. 

The muscular action in localized movements differs from that 
in non-localized movements chiefly in two ways, the prominence 
of the one or the other depending upon the naturę of the move- 
ment and on the degree of muscular control possessed by the in- 
dividual. (1) Movement may be localized by inhibiting the 
action of all muscles not directly concerned, that is, by localizing 
the muscular action to those groups only which puli directly on 
the segments involved. (2) By neutralizing the effect of ad- 
ventitious or associated muscular action, of gravity, momentum 
and inertia through static action of muscles antagonistic to these 
forces, thereby insuring fixation of all parts which it is desired 
to exclude from the movement. 

3. Localization of iiiiiscniar contraction. Most movements 
are produced by combined or associated action of many muscles. 
This association or functional grouping of muscles may serve 
the purpose of producing any one of several kinds of movements 
possible in one joint, or it may be of a more generał character, 
leading to movement of the same kind in several joints. The 
combined action of the latissimus, teres major and pectoralis 
major in producing adduction in the shoulder joint is an exam- 
ple of the first kind of grouping ; the associated action of the hip 
joint flexors and the abdominal muscles in raising the leg forward 
is a good example of the second. When it is desired to move a 
segment through a wide rangę, or against considerable resistance, 
or very ąuickly, the tendency is always to distribute the move- 
ment over many joints and to bring into action a great number 
of associated muscle groups. But even in movements of moderate 
extent, speed and power this tendency to distribution is strong. 
Moderate contraction of many muscles seems easier than power- 
ful contraction of a few, even if the total expenditure of energy 
is greater in the long rim. At any rate this kind of muscular 
action is apt to lead to excessive, cumbersome, and ill-adjusted 
movement. 



SrMMARY 131 

Localization of muscular contraction is the limitation of the 
number of miiscles or groups taking part in the procluction of a 
given movement. It implies inhibition of unnecessary, induced 
muscular action, involves disassociation of large, fundamenta! 
group associations, and is thus a determining factor in the num- 
ber, yariety and accuracy of coórdinated movements. The power 
of localized muscular action varies in individuals and in different 
parts of the body. In the trunk it is' never very great, but it may 
be increased by training. One way to increase this power is by 
the practice of definite gymnastic exercises, in which the move- 
ments are localized through fixation by conscious muscular efifort 
of all parts not directly concerned (see fixation). This, for one 
thing, gives opportunity for complete and vigorous contraction 
of the motor muscles proper. It also teaches the individual to 
perceiye more clearly the different elements of complex move- 
ments, to appreciate finer distinctions and to "find" more readily 
the right kind and degree of muscular action needed in these com- 
binations. By means of the keener kinesthetic sense cultivated in 
this way he is able, after a while, to inhibit more perfectly the 
unnecessary muscular contractions induced through habitual as- 
sociation of groups belonging to the same generał system, and to 
reduce correspondingly the amount of muscular work necessary 
for purposes of fixation. The extent to which all unnecessary 
muscular action can be thus eliminated, represents the degree of 
power of localized muscular contraction, and this, in the last 
analysis, is the basis of skill, grace and economy of effort. The 
whole process may be summarized b^- the statement made in the 
introductory part, that by the practice of definite, localized gym- 
nastic exercises, the inhibition of unnecessary elements in move- 
ment becomes a central rather than a peripheral affair. 

4. Fixation. Aside from the instinctive tendency to distribute 
movement over large areas through the induced contraction of 
muscles habitually associated, localization of movement is made 
(lifficult by the mechanical influence of many muscles on other 
parts than those to which they are attached. The majority of the 
iarger muscles, and especially those of the trunk, play of 
seyeral joints and by their contraction or tension produce or 
modify moyement, not only of the segments to which they are 
attached but of intervening segments as well. Sometimes, 
through passiye tension of other muscles, or through mechanical 
fixation of distant points (hands or feet) moyement may be pro- 
duced eyen in parts which lie beyond those on which the muscles 
puli directly. For example, in arm bending from the hanging 
position the latissimus dorsi, primarily concerned in the effort to 
bring the humerus down to the side of the body, also indirectly 



132 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



helps to depress the scapula and rotate it dowiiward and to flex 
the elbow. If the elbows are allowed to move forward the com- 
bined, obliątie puli of the right and left muscles will tend to draw 
the lower middle back forward and to round the upper back. 
Similarly, the two great pectorals in their effort to draw the arms 
forward across the chest will also, unless resisted by the upper 
back muscles, cause a forward displacement of the shoulder gir- 
dle and flex the thoracic spine. The contraction of such muscles, 
therefore, leads to distribution rather than localization of move- 
ment. 

Gravity is another important factor in the tendency to dis- 
tribute movement. With every movement the center of gravity 
for the body as a whole is displaced more or less, or the centers 
for different parts or regions change their relations to the gen- 
erał center. For every movement of one part of the body away 
from the generał weight line in one direction, there must be a 
corresponding displacement of another part in the opposite direc- 
tion in order to keep the generał center of grayity directly over 
the point of support and so preserve the eąuilibrium. The far- 
ther any part is projected beyond the point of support the greater 
is the tendency for all the segments between this point and the 
point of farthest projection to change their relative positions — 
to topple over or collapse. The extent of this is limited by passive 
tension on muscles in a state of tonie contraction of varying de- 
gree and finally by ligaments. Bowing and stooping down with 
bent back are typical examples of movements produced by 
gravity and involving all joints from the hips up. / 

The degree of localization or distribution of a movement is 
often influenced by inertia, momentum and the recoil of tissues 
which have been subjected to strong tension. This is especially 
apt to be the case in movements of considerable speed. For ex- 
ample, in a charge the trunk tends to arch backward during the 
first part and to bend forward at the end of the movement. In 
a ąuick arm flinging forward- upward the movement of the arm 
is communicated to the trunk, causing a backward bending in the 
lower part of the spine. After the arms have reached the greatest 
possible elevation they are apt to drop forward again from the 
recoil of the muscles and fibrous structures in front of the 
shoulders. To hołd a sharpły defined position reached by a 
ąuick movement tlierefore reąuires additional work of a static 
character on the part of tłie muscles włiich produced the move- 
ment. The rangę and distribution of any movement whatever 
will then be determined on one hand by tłie extent to which one 
or ałł of the above factors operate, on other by the extent to 
whicłi these factors are neutrałized through fixation of segments. 



SUMMARY 133 

Aside from fixation by external forces, the rangę of movement as 
well as the number of segments involved is limited in two ways : 

(1) By passive fixation. When the motor force cannot be 
very accurately localized — as in the case of movements produced 
by mnscles running over several joints, or by associated action of 
many muscles running in the same generał direction over a num- 
ber of segments, or by gravity — all the segments on which the 
force acts will move at the points and in the directions of least 
resistance and until resistance which the motor force cannot 
overcome is encountered. Such resistance is offered in the first 
place by the passive tension of muscles in a state of ordinary 
tonie contraction and situated on the side opposite to that toward 
which movement is taking place ; secondly by the tightening of 
ligaments and the locking or contact of bony processes. In this 
way movement of the different segments is successively retarded 
or checked, two or more segments are locked together and move 
as one, and the motor force is finally brought to bear exclusively 
on those segments whose joints possess the greatest freedom of 
motion. Examples of this kind of fixation are numerous in move- 
ments of the trunk, shoulder and hip regions. Bending forward 
from the hips without making any special effort to keep the back 
straight has already been given to illustrate the action of gravity. 
Here the flexion in the hip joint is supplemented by a forward 
movement of the head, shoulder girdle and upper spine, varying 
in amount according to the tone of the back muscles and the 
mobility of the spinał joints. Only at the very last is the move- 
ment localized entirely to the hip joints. In the shoulder joint 
localization through passive fixation occurs only, if at all, at the 
very beginning of slow and easy arm movements, or at the ex- 
treme end of such movements when ąuick or forcible, after the 
limits of motion in the joints of the shoulder girdle and upper 
spine have been reached. 

Passive fixation is rarely, if ever, sufficient to localize move- 
ment in a way to insure definiteness. In fact, when such fixation 
is allowed to determine the character of movement, definiteness 
' is usually conspicuous by its absence. It is the mode of fixation 
used in large, vague, distributed or oscillatory movements, often 
forming parts of reflex coórdinations, in which there is little or 
no attempt to localize muscular contraction, and in which accu- 
rate adjustment to varying conditions is not a prominent element. 

(2) By active fixation. This is the mode of fixation used in 
definite, localized movements. Here the effect of the motor force 
on the segments which it is desired to exclude from the move- 
ment is neutralized, and displacement of these segments checked 
or prevented, by active contraction, usually static, of muscles 



134 



GYMXASTIC- KINESIOLOGY 



opposed to such displacements. In new or unfamiliar forms of 
movement the first attempts to localize by this kind of fixation are 
apt to lead to excessive and too distributed action on the part of 
the fixator as well as the motor muscles. This is shown by stiff- 
ness and jerkiness, sometimes by slowness and hmitation of rangę 
of the movement. But with practice the individnal learns to bal- 
ance and time the two kinds of muscular action better, to confine 
both to the smailest possible area and to gauge the amount and 
speed of the effort so as to produce a smooth and precise move- 
ment. This is the usual process in learning movements reąuiring 
fine adjustment, speed and power, or balance and smooth se- 
ąuence, such as walking, dancing, fencing, gymnastic feats, etc. 

In gymhastics active fixation is used to maintain correct pos- 
turę of the head and trunk throughout all movements, to increase 
the power of locaHzed muscular action everywhere and particu- 
larly in the upper back and abdominal regions. By giving exer- 
cises which demand complete, powerful and well-adjusted con- 
traction of the muscles in these regions it is hoped to increase 
their tone and endurance as well as the ease or facility with which 
they can be brought into play without inducing too strong action 
on the part of their habitual associates — the lower back muscles 
and hip joint flexors respectively. On this depends their efficiency 
as supporting muscles of their respective regions. 

The Supporting Fnnctioii of Muscles. The majority of the 
muscles of the trunk and lower extremities' may be said to have 
two functions. One is to move the bones to which they are at- 
tached, and may be called their active or motor function ; the 
other is to retain these bcnes in their proper position. This might 
be called their passive or supporting function. The skeleton is a 
column of super-imposed segments, held together by ligaments 
and fibro-cartilages in such a way as to permit a varying amount 
of movement between these segments. Because of this mobility 
the column is unstable, cannot be balanced and kept erect without 
steadying or fixation by muscles. The habitual posturę of any 
part of the column will depend, for one thing, on the efficiency of 
the muscles responsible for the support of this part. The effi- 
ciency of muscles as regards their active or motor function de- 
pends upon their strength and size ; their efficiency as regards 
their supporting function depends upon their tone and endurance. 
Muscular tone, tonicity or tonie contraction are terms used to de- 
note the constant, moderate contraction of muscles. It determines 
their habitual length as well as their (apparent) consistency. It 
is a relative ąuality varying in individuals and in different parts 
of the body. It is not necessarily proportional to the actual 
strength, size or development of the muscles. Nor does work 



SUMMARY 



135 



which is conducive to increase in size and strength necessarily 
increase tone. The kind of work best suited for the improvement 
of the motor function of muscles involves complete contraction 
against considerable resistance, alternating with complete relaxa- 
tion. For the improvement of their supporting function work 
reąuiring static contraction for considerable periods of time with 
only partial relaxation is probably most effective. 

In gymnastics the work should be of a character tending to 
improve the functional efficiency of muscles both as organs of 
support and of motion. This applies especially to those regions 
in which the constant influences of daily life tend to disturb the 
proper anatomical relations and to reduce the scope and variety 
of the muscular action to a minimum. To this end the exercises 
should, so far as possible, reverse the habitual conditions of pos- 
turę and movement in these regions. They should cultivate the 
mobility at the points and in the directions in which it tends to 
become limited, viz., extension in the upper spine and usually 
flexion in the lower, upward and backward movement of the 
head, neck and arms ; they should cali for freąuent complete, vig- 
orous and well localized contractions of the upper erector spinse, 
posterior neck tmd scapular muscles, or of the abdominal mus- 
cles and hip joint extensors, and for moderate contraction of 
these muscles at all times, under a yariety of conditions and in- 
creasing difficulties. The results of diligent practice of gymnastic 
exercises of this character will show themselves in increased tone, 
endurance and power of localized muscular action, in higher ideals 
and improved habits of posturę and movement. 

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I. 

Bowen, W. P. Mechanics of Bodily Exercise. The F. A. Bassette Co.^ 

Springfield, Mass., 1909. 
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phys. Klasse des konigl. Sachs. Gesellsch. d. Wissensh. Band XXV.,. 

XXVI., XXVIII. 

Bradford, E. H. Movement of the Front of the Foot in Walking. Jour- 
nal of the Boston Society of Medical Sciences. III., 7, p. 205. 

Bradford, E. H. Flexion or Bent Knee Marching. New York Medical 
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Brevoor, C. E. On Muscular Movements and their Representation in the 
Central Nervous System. Croomian lectures, London, 1904. R. D> 
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Busch, Ueber die Function des Serratus anticus major. Arch. f. klin. 

Chir. Band IV., 1863. 
Carlet. Essai experimental sur la locomotion humaine, etude de la marche. 

Annales des Sciences naturalles. V. Serie, Zoologie, 1872. 



136 



GYMNASTIC KINESIOLOGY 



Cathcart. Movements of the Shoulder Girdle Involved in Those of the 
Arm and Trunk. Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol. XVIII., 
1882. 

Cleland. A Lecture on the Shoulder Girdle and Tts Movements. Lancet, 
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Cleland. Notes on Raising the Arm. Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 
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Demeny, G. Les bases scientifiques de Teducation physiąue, pp. 109-125. 
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Demeny, G. Mechanisme et education des mouvements. Felix Alcan, 
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Demeny, G. Precision in Phvsical Training. Popular Science Monthly, 
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Duchenne, G. B. Physiologie des mouvements. Paris, 1867. 

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dem Fransóssichen. Cassel und Berlin, 1885. 
Duchenne, G. B. De Telectrisation localisee. Paris, 1872. 
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Fuchs, R. Der Gang des Menschen. Biologisches Centralblatt, 'KKL, 
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Goldthwaite, J. E. and Osgood, R. B. A Consideration of the Pelvic Ar- 
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Langer, C. Die Bewegungen der Gliedermassen, in besondere der Arme. 
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Lombard, W. P. The Action of Two-ioint Muscles. American Physical 
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Lovett, R. W. Lateral Curvature of the Spine and Round Shoulders. 
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von Meyer, H Die Statik und Mechanik des menschlichen Knochen- 
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SUMMARY 137 

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INDEX. 



Page 

Abdominal Exercises 112 

Abdominal Muscles, action of 90, 91 

association with hip joint flexors (and the pec- 

torals) 54, 68, 113 

association with hip joint extensors and upper 

erector spinam 99, 117, 119 

Active fixation 133 

Alternate foot placings 101 

Alternate knee upward bending, standing and hanging 115 

Alternate leg flinging forward 112 

" " " sideways , 119 

Alternate leg raising backward : 111 

Alternate trunk twisting 124 

Arm bending, from Fundamental standing position , 27 

Cross Rest (the "Dip") 79 

Fali Hanging position 57 

Hanging position, reverse grasp 53 

" " ordinary grasp 55 

' ' Prone Falling position 78 

Arm parting, following Arm Raising forward 44 

Arm raising forward to horizontal position 41 

Arm raising forward-upward 45 

" sideways 30 

" " " with palms up 36 

" " " sideways-upward 39 

Arm stretchings,- following arm bending 46 

Associated movements of lower spine, pelvis and legs 86 

Associated action of the anterior muscle groups 54, 66, 68, 113 

posterior muscle groups 24, 99, 109, 110 

" " deltoid, trapezius and serratus magnus 31 

Athletics and games, character of 1 

" " " effects of 3 

Back exercises .25, 108 

Backward bending of head ■ 22 

Backward bending of trunk, from Fundamental standing position. ... 24 

" " " Opposite sitting position 117 

Back Vault 73 

Balance-weighing position 67 

Charges 105 

Chest expansion, joint mechanism 12 

muscular mechanism 14, 23, 28, 29 

Ghinning the bar ^ 53 

Circling the bar to Front Rest 60 

Climbmg 58 

Cross Rest 78 

Dancing 5, 6 

Definiteness of gymnastic exercises 128 

Different types of standing position 93 

"Dip" and "Push up" on parallel bars 79, 81 

Distinctive features of arm stretchings 48 

Distinctive features of gymnastics, as compared, etc 1-7 

Exercises involving*support on the arms 67 

Excessive action of pectorals 68 

. " " " lower erector spinse 24, 96 



140 INDEX 

Pag:e 

Face Vault 72 

Fali Hanging position . . 56 

" arm bending from. 57 

Faulty gymnastic standing position 96 

Fixation 131 

" active and passive 133 

of shoulder girdle 35, 43, 48, 69 

" of pelvis 124 

Fiat backed standing position , 95 

Flattening of the back, muscular mechanism of 32, 43, 78 

Flank Yault. See Side Vault 72 

Forward bending of arms 33 

" " trunk, from Fundamental standing position .. 25, 109 

" " " " Prone lying position 110 

Forward charge 105 

Forward circle, from Front Rest 62 

Forward-downward bending of trunk 26, 109 

Foot placings and knee bendings 101 

"Free" Front Rest 70 

Free standing arching movements 22 

arm and shoulder blade movements 27 

" " back movements 25, 109 

Front Rest 67 

f Front Yault 75 

Front Yault. See Face Yault 72 

Fundamental gymnastic standing position. 21, 98 

Gravity as a factor in movement 17, 132 

Gymnastic exercises, character of 1, 5 

Gymnastics and dancing, effects of 4 

Gymnastic compared with non-gymnastic exercises ........ .6, 31, 43, 128 

Half sideways bending of arms 36 

Hand stand '. 74 

Hand traveling on suspension apparatus 51 

Hanging position, active and passive 49 

" " with reverse grasp 52 

" " arm bending from 53-56 

Head bending back ward 22 

Hip joint 90 

muscles ■ 91 

" " varied action of 93 

Hollow backed standing position 95, 97 

Horizontal position on one foot (Hor. half st. pos.) 108 

Horizontal Yaults 71 

Indefinite and definite gymnastic exercises 7, 128 

Inertia as a factor in movement 17, 132 

Importance of trunk movements 10 

Internal resistance as a factor in movement 18, 132 

Inverted Hanging position. 64 

" " " pull-up over bar 65 

Joints of upper trunk and shoulder region 11 

" " lower trunk and hip region 89 

Jump Yault 76 

Jumping 127 

"Kip" 66 

Knee bending, standing 103 

Knee upward bending, alternate, standing 115 

" " " " from Hanging position 115 

double ", " " 116 



INDEX 141 

Pag-e 

Knee Vault '^5 

Lateral Trunk Exercises ; . . . . 119 

Leg raising, alternate, from standing position ' 111 

" *Hanging " 115 

double " " " 116 

Leverage as a factor in movement ^ 18 

Literaturę 135 

Localization of movement 129 

in Backward bending of trunk 24 

" Forward " " " 25, 109 

" " • " " Opposite sitting backward bending of 

trunk 117 

" " " " Standing Trunk twisting 124 

Localization of muscular contraction 130 

to upper erector spinse in Back- 
ward bending of trunk 24 

in Forward bending of trunk .... 25 
" Fundamental standing po- 
sition 21, 99 

" Opposite sitting backward 

bending of trunk 117 

Locomotion 124 

Lumbar spine 89 

Muscles, categorical classification of , 20 

" supporting function of 134 

Muscles of lower trunk and hip region 90 

" upper trunk and shoulder region 13 

Muscular action in Fundamental gymnajtic position 21, 99 

Neck firm 37 

Need and value of motor training in lower trunk and hip region. . . . 86-88 

Normal relaxed standing position 93 

Obliąue charge 106 

Obliąue foot placing 102 

Obliąuity of muscular puli as a factor in movement 17 

Opposite sitting backward bending of trunk, 117 

Paddling 84 

Participation of scapula in movements of the arm 30 

Passive fixation 133 

Pectorals, action of, in exercises involving support on arms 68, 81 

Placing hands behind the neck 37 

Prone falling position 77 

" " " arm bending from 78 

Prone lying position 109 

forward bending from 110 

PuU-up over bar, from Inverted Hanging position •. . . . 65 

Rear Vault. See Back Yault 73 

Round backed standing position 94 

Rowing 83 

Running 126 

Sacro-ibac joint , 89 

Scapular adductors and depressors, combined action of 33, 34, 35 

Scapular and shoulder joint muscles, varied action of 16 

Scapular movements 12 

Scapular muscles 14 

Sheep Yault. See Front Vault 75 

Shoulder joint movements ' 12 

Shoulder joint muscles ". . 14 

Side bending of trunk, standing 120 



142 INDEX 

Papre 

Side holding 122 

Side falling position (side leaning rest) > 122 

Side lunge 103 

Side lying position, and side bending from 121 

SideYault 72 

Spine, joints and movements of 11, 89 

muscles which move T 13, 90 

Sąuat Yautt 75 

Starting the swing from the Hanging position 59 

Straddle Yault 75 

Summary 128 

Supporting function of muscles 134 

Suspension Exercises 49 

" " similar to the Hanging position 51 

Trunk movements, importance of 10 

Trunk bending backward 24 

forward 25, 109 

" " forward-downward 26, 109 

sideways 120, 122 

" twisting 124 

Toe-support charge position 107, 108 

Thief Yault. See Jump Yault 76 

Throwing 84 

Traveling on suspension apparatus 51 

Traveling, from Cross Rest, on parallel bars 79 

Upstart to Front Rest (the "Kip") • 66 

Yaults, Horizontal 72 

Yertical • 75 

Walking 125 



OCT 131909 



LIBRARYOFCONGRESS 




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